EXCHANGE 


AN  INVESTIGATION 

OF  CERTAIN  PHASES  OF 

THE  REORGANIZATION  MOVEMENT 

IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES 

OF   INDIANA   PUBLIC 

SCHOOLS 


BY 
HUBERT  GUY  GHILDS,  Ph.D. 


Submitted  in  partial  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  the 

degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  in  the  Faculty  of 

Philosophy,  Columbia  University. 


PUBLISHED  BY 
FORT  WAYNE  PRINTING  CO. 

FORT  WAYNE.  IND. 
1918 


COPYRIGHT.    1918,    BY 
HUBERT  GUY  CHILDS 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This  study  was  undertaken  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
T.  H.  Briggs  of  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  to  whom 
I  am  indebted  for  helpful  criticism  during  the  progress  of  the 
investigation. 

Numerous  superintendents,  principals,  teachers,  and  school 
officials  have  cooperated  with  me  in  assembling  the  data  pre- 
sented in  the  following  pages,  and  I  am  glad  to  express  my  ob- 
ligation to  them  for  their  assistance,  without  which  this  study 
would  have  been  impossible. 


374393 


CONTENTS 

A.  INTRODUCTION.  PAGE 

1.  Introductory  statement 1 

2.  Statement  of  the  aims  of  the  investigation 4 

3.  Statement  of  the  methods  of  the  investigation  and  their  limita- 

tions      ~ 4 

4.  Location  of  schools  reporting  data 7 

B.  BODY. 

1.  Reorganization  in  Indiana  schools       9 

a.  Extent  as  to  numbers  with  date  of  organization 9 

b.  Aims,  advantages,  and  standards  of  the  reorganization  move- 

ment (theory) 12 

1.  Plan   of  evaluating  aims  and   factors  of  reorganization 

adopted  in  this  study      . 12 

c.  Standards  or  features  of  reorganization  actually  in  use  in 

Indiana  schools 20 

1.  Programs  of  study  in  Indiana  junior  high  schools  ....  20 

2.  Provision  for  individual  differences  in  junior  high  schools    .  41 

3.  Indications  of  revised  methods 49 

4.  Guidance  and  social  activities 60 

5.  Miscellaneous  features 63 

a.  Grades  included        69 

b.  Types  of  organization  claimed 70 

c.  Housing 70 

d.  Time  distribution  as  to  length  of  year  and  recitation  .     .  71 

e.  Teacher  training  and  experience 71 

f.  Number  of  men  teachers 71 

g.  Salaries       72 

h.  Conditions  of  admission  to  junior  high  schools     ...  73 

d.  Features    of    practice    in    departmental    schools  and  their 

comparison  with  those  of  junior  high  schools 75 

1.  Programs  of  study 75 

2.  Provision  for  individual  differences 83 

3.  Indications  of  revised  methods 85 

4.  Guidance  and  social  activities 87 

5.  Miscellaneous  features 90 

6.  Comparison  of  junior  and  departmental  schools     ...  95 

2.  Measurement  of  claimed  advantages  and  objections  to  junior 

high  school  organization 103 

a.  Cost  per  pupil  for  instruction  and  supervision 103 

b.  Comparative  measures  of  achievement  in  the  eighth  grades 

of  several  junior  and  non-junior  type  schools 121 

1.  Spelling 125 

2.  Reading,  understanding  of  sentences 128 

3.  Vocabulary  test  or  word  recognition 131 


Contents;  List  of  Charts 

PAGE 

4.  Arithmetic,  multiplication 134 

c.  Measurement  of  retention  thru  junior  high  school  grades  in 

both  junior  and  non-junior  type  schools 137 

1.  General  discussion         137 

2.  In  terms  of  enrollments 140 

3.  In  terms  of  the  attendance  and  progress  of  definite  sixth 
grade  pupil  groups  thru  higher  grades 149 


LIST  OF  CHARTS 

PAGE 

1.  Comparative  scoring  of  junior  and  departmental  schools 101 

2.  Per  capita  cost  of  instruction  and  supervision  in  junior  and  non- 

junior  type  schools 113 

3.  Retention  in  junior  and  departmental  schools  in  terms  of  enroll- 

ments         143 

4.  Retention  in  junior  and  departmental  schools  in  terms  of  half  years 

of  attendance  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade 159 

5.  Per  cent  gain  in  attendance  retention  by  boys  in  junior  and  depart- 

mental schools . .  159 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


1.  Date  of  organization 11 

2.  Population  of  cities  and  towns  by  school  groups 11 

3.  Features  of  junior  high  school  organization  as  rated  by  twenty-five 

judges < 14 

4.  Group  ranking  of  factors  in  junior  high  school  organization 17 

5.  Subject  offerings  in  junior  high  schools 22 

6.  Provision  for  individual  differences  in  junior  high  schools 41 

7.  Factors  in  method  modification  in  junior  high  schools 55 

8.  Miscellaneous  features  of  practice  in  junior  high  schools 67 

9.  Subject  offerings  in  departmental  schools 76 

10.  Provision  for  individual  differences  in  departmental  schools 83 

11.  Factors  in  method  modification  in  departmental  schools 85 

12.  Miscellaneous  features  of  practice  in  departmental  schools 90 

13.  Rating  of  junior  high  schools  in  special  features  of  organization. ...     97 

14.  Rating  of  departmental  schools  in  special  features  of  organization . .     99 

15.  Cost  per  pupil  for  instruction  and  supervision  in  junior  and  depart- 

mental schools 105 

16.  Range  of  cost  distribution 107 

17.  Cost  per  pupil  for  instruction  and  supervision  in  cities  of  5,000 

and  more  population 107 

18.  Cost  per  pupil  for  instruction  and  supervision  in  cities  of  less  than 

5,000  population 108 

19.  Cost   per   pupil   for   instruction   and   supervision   in   consolidated 

schools 108 

20.  Ayers'  Spelling  Test  Results,  County  "A" 125 

21.  Ayers'  Spelling  Test  Results,  County  "B" 126 

22.  Thorndike  Reading  Test  Results,  County  "A" 128 

23.  Thorndike  Reading  Test  Results,  County  "B" 128 

24.  Thorndike  Visual  Vocabulary  Test  Results,  County  "A" .' . . .   131 

25.  Thorndike  Visual  Vocabulary  Test  Results,  County  "B". 132 

26.  Woody  Multiplication  Test  Results,  County  "A" 134 

27.  Woody  Multiplication  Test  Results,  County  "B" 135 

28.  Retention  in  junior  high  schools  in  terms  of  enrollments  in  cities  of 

less  than  5,000  population 141 

29.  Retention  in  junior  high  schools  in  terms  of  enrollments  in  cities 

of  from  5,000  to  19,000  population 141 

30.  Retention  in  junior  high  schools  in  terms  of  enrollments  in  cities 

of  20,000  and  more  population 142 

31.  Retention  in  departmental  schools  in  terms  of  enrollments  in  cities 

of  less  then  5,000  population 142 

32.  Retention  in  departmental  schools  in  terms  of  enrollments  in  cities 

of  from  5,000  to  19,000  population 143 

vii 


viii  List  of  Tables 

PAGE 

33.  Retention  in  departmental  schools  in  terms  of  enrollments  in  cities 

of  20,000  and  more  population 144 

34.  Retention  in  non-departmental  schools  in  terms  of  enrollments 144 

35.  Summary  of  tables  28  to  34  inclusive 145 

36.  High  sixth  grade  enrollments  in  1907-8  and  1912-13 151 

37.  Retention  of  pupils  in  junior  high  schools  thru  each  number  of  half 

years  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1912-13  group 152 

38.  Retention  of  pupils  in  junior  high  schools  thru  each  number  of  half 

years  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1907-8  group 154 

39.  Retention  of  pupils  in  departmental  schools  thru  each  number  of 

half  years  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1912-13  group 155 

40.  Retention  of  pupils  in  departmental  schools  thru  each  number  of 

half  years  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1907-8  group 156 

41.  Per  cent  of  gain  in  retention  in  years  of  attendance  between  1907-8 

and  1912-13  groups  in  junior  high  schools 157 

42.  Per  cent  of  gain  in  retention  in  years  of  attendance  between  1907-8 

and  1912-13  groups  in  departmental  schools 157 

43.  Retention  of  pupils  in  junior  high  schools  as  measured  by  years  of 

progress  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1912-13  group 162 

44.  Retention  of  pupils  in  junior  high  schools  as  measured  by  years  of 

pogress  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1907-8  group 164 

45.  Retention  of  pupils  in  departmental  schools  as  measured  by  years 

of  progress  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1912-13  group 165 

46.  Retention  of  pupils  in  departmental  schools  as  measured  by  years  of 

progress  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  1907-8  group 166 

47.  Per  cent  of  gain  in  retention  in  years  of  progress  between  the  1907-8 

and  1912-13  groups  in  junior  high  schools 167 

48.  Per  cent  of  gain  in  retention  in  years  of  progress  between  the  1907-8 

and  1912-13  groups  in  departmental  schools 167 

49.  Progress  thru  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  junior  high  schools, 

1912-13  group 170 

50.  Progress  thru  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  junior  high  schools, 

1907-8  group 170 

51.  Progress   thru    the   seventh   and   eighth   grades   in    departmental 

schools,  1912-13  group 171 

52.  Progress    thru    the   seventh    and    eighth    grades    in    departmental 

schools,  1907-8  group 171 


A.     INTRODUCTION. 

1.     INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  rapid  economic  expansion  of  the  last  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  resulted  in  a  marked  shifting  of  population  from 
a  rather  primitive  rural  life  to  a  complex  city  life,  a  high  degree 
of  specialization  in  labor  and  the  removal  of  labor  from  the 
home,  a  lack  of  educative  employment  for  city  youth,  an  increase 
in  wealth  and  leisure,  and  an  increased  demand  upon  the  school 
for  a  longer  and  somewhat  modified  type  of  training. 

Like  other  institutions  the  school  was  conservative  and  re- 
sponded slowly  to  the  increasing  demand  for  a  longer  term  and 
compulsory  attendance,  and  still  more  slowly  did  the  school  and 
the  public  become  conscious  that  the  traditional  school  program 
needed  radical  reorganization  to  supply  the  elements  taken  from 
the  life  of  the  child  by  the  changed  social  conditions  and  to  enable 
him  adequately  to  solve  the  new  social  problems  arising  out  of 
these  changed  and  changing  conditions. 

The  first  demand  for  reorganization  came  chiefly  from  those 
interested  in  higher  education  from  the  point  of  view  of  economy 
of  time  in  preparation  for  professional  work.  Naturally  the 
proposal  was  in  the  form  of  an  extension  of  the  work  of  the 
secondary  school  into  the  grammar  grades.  In  the  report  of 
the  Committee  of  Ten  on  Secondary  Education1  such  a  down- 
ward extension  of  its  work  was  urged  by  practically  every  aca- 
demic department  group  represented  in  the  high  school.  In 
other  words  they  favored  a  six  year  secondary  school  above  a 
six  year  elementary  school  as  best  designed  to  accomplish  the 
desired  reform. 

While  the  committee  held  that  the  high  school  should  minister 
to  the  needs  of  the  vast  majority  of  its  pupils  who  are  not  going 
to  college,  yet  the  report  leaves  the  impression  that  the  committee 
considered  that  what  was  best  for  those  going  to  college  was  best 
for  all.  The  report  says,  " Ninety-eight  teachers  unanimously 
declare  that  every  subject  taught  at  all  in  a  secondary  school 
should  be  taught  in  the  same  way  and  to  the  same  extent  to 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  of  the  N.  E.  A.  1893:14  and  15. 

1 


2         Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

every  pupil  so  long  as  he  pursues  it,  no  matter  what  the  probable 
destination  of  the  pupil  may  be  or  at  what  point  his  education 
is  to  cease/'2 

The  Committee  on  the  Economy  of  Time  in  Education3  and 
the  Committee  on  a  Six  Year  Course  of  Study4  favor  either  a 
shortening  of  the  twelve  year  period  of  elementary  and  secondary 
education  by  the  earlier  introduction  of  high  school  subjects 
or  the  enrichment  of  the  six  year  secondary  work  so  that  the 
period  of  collegiate  and  professional  training  may  be  shortened. 
While  the  recommendations  for  reorganization  are  broader  in 
scope  than  those  of  the  previous  committee,  yet  these  committees, 
like  the  Committee  of  Ten,  appear  to  view  the  problem  largely 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  high  school  and  the  college. 

Only  within  the  last  ten  years,  and  chiefly  within  the  last 
five,  has  the  reorganization  movement  turned  in  part  from  a 
program  of  reform  along  purely  academic  lines  to  the  inclusion 
of  vocational  activities  of  a  broad  and  varied  sort  in  both  the 
high  school  and  the  grammar  grades.  This  is,  no  doubt,  due  in 
considerable  degree  to  the  rapidly  improving  economic  condi- 
tions among  large  elements  of  our  population  and  to  the  conse- 
quent leisure  among  youth,  making  a  longer  period  of  education 
possible;  to  the  lengthening  of  the  time  of  school  training  and  a 
more  rigorous  enforcement  of  compulsory  attendance  laws;  to 
the  increased  popularity  of  the  high  school  as  a  result  of  its 
offering  some  elective  work ;  to  the  fact  that  a  rapidly  increasing 
grammar  grade  and  high  school  enrollment  represents  every 
variety  of  occupational  interest  as  compared  with  narrow  interests 
in  times  past;  to  an  increased  realization  among  educators  of 
the  conditions  of  elimination  in  the  upper  grades  and  high  school 
and  of  the  significance  of  individual  differences  among  children; 
and  to  an  increasing  social  consciousness  that  the  school  is  a 
social  institution  whose  function  is  to  produce  socially  efficient 
citizens  thru  providing  an  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
every  variety  of  talent  deemed  socially  desirable. 

The  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Educa- 
tion,6-6 which  has  been  at  work  since  1913  and  which  has  issued 
as  yet  but  few  reports  of  the  various  sub-committees,  advocates 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  of  the  N.  E.  A.  1893:17. 

»  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Economy  of  Time  in  Education.    Bui.  38.  1913,  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Ed. 

«  Report  of  the  Committee  on  a  Six  Year  Course  of  Study.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.  1901 :498-503. 
•  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education.     Bui.  41.    1913,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Ed. 
"Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools.    Bui.  2.    191 7,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Ed.  pp.  26-29. 


Introductory  Statement  3 

a  six  year  high  school  organization  and  a  greatly  modified  and 
enriched  program  and  differentiated  curricula  in  the  junior  high 
school  grades  as  a  means  of  meeting  the  problems  of  our  complex 
and  democratic  society. 

Many  objections  have  been  raised  against  the  eight-four  plan 
or  the  usual  grammar  grade  organization  prevailing  at  the  present 
time,  among  others  the  following:7  over-crowded  curriculum, 
duplication  and  waste,  lack  of  correlation  between  subjects, 
unessential  and  impracticable  topics,  topics  which  have  a  legiti- 
mate place  in  no  program,  over- worked  pupils,  inflexible  course 
of  study,  inadequate  articulation  of  elementary  and  high  school, 
little  consideration  for  individual  differences,  promotion  based 
on  unsound  principles,  discipline  unsuited  to  youth,  improperly 
equipped  teachers,  pupil  contact  with  too  few  personalities, 
unpedagogical  methods  of  instruction,  too  late  beginning  of  some 
secondary  subjects,  lack  of  vocational  work,  too  much  elimina- 
tion, insufficient  attention  to  retarded  and  superior  pupils,  in- 
sufficient hand  work,  lack  of  specific  trade  training,  and  an  over- 
mechanical  system. 

The  advantages  stated  for  the  reorganized  school  imply 
that  the  opposite  of  the  above  named  objections  are  realized. 
The  question  may  be  raised  whether  most  of  the  objections 
stated  really  have  anything  to  do  with  an  eight-four  or  a  six- 
six  type  of  organization;  they  relate  rather  to  the  spirit  of  the 
organization  and  not  to  its  form,  although  the  six-six  plan  will 
make  the  realization  of  some  factors  more  probable.  In  the  second 
place  it  appears  that  many  of  these  objections  are  entirely  over- 
drawn for  the  average  school  system  of  the  present  time.  It 
may  be  that  educational  reformers,  like  other  reformers,  delight 
in  setting  up  supposed  conditions  which  are  easy  of  attack. 
However,  there  is  a  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  in  the  public  mind 
that  is  demanding  a  change  in  school  purposes  and  organization 
in  line  with  current  social  and  industrial  ideals. 

Since  1910  the  reorganization  has  progressed  at  an  accelerated 
rate.  In  1910  there  were  probably  not  to  exceed  a  score  of  schools 
claiming  junior  high  school  or  intermediate  school  organization; 
in  1914,  Briggs8  reported  data  from  133  and  estimated  that  at 
least  60  more  had  been  reported  thru  other  sources;  in  1915 

7  Davis,  C.  O.     Principles  and  Plans  for  Reorganizing  Secondary  Education.     Ch.  iv  of 
Johnston's  High  School  Education.  N.  Y.  1912. 

8  Briggs,  T.  H.    The  Junior  High  School.    Report  of  the  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.  1914:135-157. 


4        Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Bingaman9  estimated  that  there  were  280  such  schools  in  the 
country;  and  a  conservative  estimate  at  the  present  time  would 
probably  not  place  the  number  below  400. 

In  spite  of  the  numerous  reports  of  National  Education 
Association  committees  before  1913,  and  the  numerous  reports 
of  school  survey  committees  since  that  date  recommending  the 
reorganization  program  in  grammar  grades,  and  the  reports  of 
various  investigations,  and  a  voluminous  literature  on  the  junior 
high  school  movement,  there  still  appears  to  be  the  utmost  con- 
fusion in  practice  as  to  standards  appropriate  to  the  new  move- 
ment. Among  Indiana  so-called  junior  high  schools  almost 
every  imaginable  degree  of  variation  appears  to  exist  relative 
to  every  standard  advocated  for  the  reorganized  school. 

2.  STATEMENT  OF  PURPOSES. 

This  investigation  has  been  undertaken: 

a.  To  ascertain  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  reorganization  of 

instruction  and  administration  in  the  grammar  grades  in 
Indiana  public  schools : 

(1)  as  to  its  extent,  as  indicated  by  the  number  of 

schools  claiming  junior  high  school  standing; 

(2)  as  to  aims  and  standards  considered  desirable  by 

Indiana  schoolmen  actively  engaged  in  the  move- 
ment; 

(3)  as  to  standards  of  practice  actually  in  vogue  in 

these  schools; 

(4)  as  to  comparisons  of  so-called  junior  high  schools 

with  other  schools. 

b.  To  measure  specifically  certain  claimed  advantages  or  objec- 

tions to  junior  high  school  organization. 

(1)  The  cost  of  instruction  and  supervision. 

(2)  Comparative   achievements   of   junior   and   non- 

junior  schools  in  certain  eighth  grade  subjects  as 
measured  by  standard  tests. 

(3)  The  retention  of  pupils  in  grammar  grades  and 

high  school  in  junior  and  non- junior  type  schools. 

3.  METHODS  OF  INVESTIGATION  AND  THEIR  LIMITATIONS. 

The  nature  of  this  investigation  is  such  that  no  one  clear  cut 
method  of  investigation  seems  adequate.  The  movement  is  of 

•  Bingaman,  C.  C.   A  Report  on  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  Schools  of  the  United  States 
Goldfield,  la.  1915. 


Purposes  and  Methods  5 

too  recent  origin  in  Indiana  to  make  the  historic  mode  of  treat- 
ment valuable,  while  the  general  reorganization  movement  of 
the  past  quarter  century  throughout  the  United  States  to  1914 
has  been  well  treated  by  Bunker.10  Certain  phases  of  the  prob- 
lem lend  themselves  to  statistical  treatment,  as  the  measurement 
of  school  achievements  and  the  retention  of  pupils  in  school, 
and  in  part  the  features  of  practice  in  the  different  schools  in- 
vestigated. The  comparative  method  has  been  freely  used,  but 
the  experimental  method  has  not  been  employed.  Rather  a 
variety  of  types  of  procedure  have  been  utilized  in  this  investi- 
gation. 

a.  Theoretical  junior  high  school  standards  for  Indiana  schools 

have  been  determined  from  published  articles  and  from  the 
ranking  of  a  definitely  formulated  list  of  items  by  25  super- 
intendents. 

b.  Features  of  practice  generally  have  been  ascertained  thru 

questionnaire  returns,  and  include:  (1)  type  of  organiza- 
tion, (2)  promotion,  (3)  housing,  (4)  enrollments,  (5) 
provision  for  flexible  advancement  of  individuals  and 
groups,  (6)  teacher  training,  experience,  and  salaries, 
(7)  features  of  method,  (8)  social  organization,  (9)  time 
distribution,  (10)  cost  of  instruction  and  supervision, 
(11)  overlapping  of  junior  and  senior  high  school  instruc- 
tion, (12)  program  of  studies. 

c.  The  measurement  of  achievement  in  certain  school  subjects 

by  means  of  standard  tests  and  the  measurement  of  reten- 
tion among  certain  pupil  groups  by  the  examination  of 
school  record  cards  thru  a  series  of  years  have  constituted 
problems  for  special  investigation. 

The  use  of  the  questionnaire  method  in  this  investigation  is 
subject  to  the  same  limitations  as  the  use  of  this  method  generally, 
namely,  incomplete  returns  for  some  items,  possibly  hopes  sub- 
stituted for  facts  in  some  cases,  and  impossibility  of  verifying  the 
accuracy  of  the  returns  in  considerable  part. 

While  practically  all  reports  are  lacking  in  some  details,  the 
total  per  cent  of  replies  to  the  various  items  for  each  group  of 
schools  is  sufficiently  high  to  be  considered  representative  of 
group  tendencies.  Also  in  large  degree  specific  statistical  and 
other  fact  items  have  been  called  for  in  the  questionnaire  and 

"»  Bunker.  F.  A.   Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  System.   Bui.  8.  1916,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Ed. 


6         Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

not  subjective  opinions.  As  a  result  the  replies  are  as  a  rule  not 
subject  to  emotional  bias  but  are  based  upon  tangible  school 
records. 

So  far  as  possible  checks  have  been  applied  to  verify  the 
accuracy  of  significant  data.  Statements  of  subject  offerings 
for  the  grades  in  question  and  the  number  of  teachers  giving 
junior  high  school  instruction  have  been  verified  or  corrected 
by  reference  to  the  school's  schedule  of  work  for  the  term  for 
which  the  data  were  collected,  from  the  state  high  school  direc- 
tory, and  by  correspondence  or  conference  with  teachers  other 
than  the  person  filling  out  the  original  questionnaire  blank. 
Teachers  of  English  and  history  in  all  junior  and  departmental 
schools  were  asked  for  statements  showing  the  nature  and  empha- 
sis of  their  work  for  grade  eight  as  a  basis  for  estimating  the  extent 
of  the  reform  of  traditional  procedure.  About  one-half  replied. 
Whereever  enrollment  data  appeared  to  be  of  questionable  value, 
the  superintendent  was  asked  to  check  again,  and  also  in  some 
cases  the  principal  or  some  teacher  was  asked  to  submit  enroll- 
ment data  for  the  period  or  term  involved.  Data  relative  to  the 
cost  of  instruction  in  the  senior  high  school  and  to  the  over- 
lapping of  the  teaching  staffs  of  high  school  and  grammar  grades 
have  been  in  part  verified  by  reference  to  data  in  my  possession 
relative  to  cost  of  instruction  in  Indiana  high  schools,  an  in- 
vestigation made  by  the  writer  in  1915-16. n  Data  for  some 
schools  relative  to  subject  offerings  in  grade  nine  and  to  teacher 
training  and  experience  have  been  verified  by  reference  to  North 
Central  Association  reports  to  which  the  writer  has  access.  The 
writer  has  personally  visited  about  one-third  the  schools  reporting 
and  has  been  able  to  note  housing  and  general  administrative 
conditions  and  programs  of  study  as  well  as  general  conditions 
of  instruction  and  the  attitude  towards  the  reorganization  move- 
ment by  teachers  and  patrons. 

In  the  measurement  of  achievement  in  school  subjects 
standard  tests  were  chosen  and  uniform  directions  for  their 
administration  were  sent  to  each  principal  in  charge.  All  papers 
were  scored  by  the  writer  or  immediately  under  his  direction. 
The  two  county  superintendents  and  the  several  high  school 
principals  entered  into  the  giving  of  the  tests  with  a  good  spirit, 
and  the  returns  from  no  school  indicate  that  directions  were 
deviated  from  in  any  way. 

In  the  measurement  of  retention  thru  half  years  of  attendance 

»  Childs,  H.  G.    Cost  of  Instruction  in  Indiana  High  Schools.    Bui.  of  Third  Conference  on 
Educational  Measurements.     Ind.  University.  Feb.  1917:126-170. 


Schools  Reporting  7 

or  progress  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  more  schools  in  each 
group  for  comparison,  but  only  a  very  limited  number  of  junior 
high  schools  have  been  organized  sufficiently  long  to  make  these 
data  of  value.  The  limitation  of  enrollment  data  as  a  measure 
of  retention  is  discussed  specifically  in  connection  with  the  sec- 
tion dealing  with  retention.  A  third  measure  of  retention  might 
have  been  used,  namely,  the  per  cent  of  resident  children  twelve 
to  eighteen  years  of  age  and  particularly  the  per  cent  fourteen 
and  fifteen  years  of  age  who  are  actually  enrolled  in  school  and 
more  specifically  in  the  junior  high  school  or  departmental  grades. 
While  the  State  Department  requires  a  statement  of  the  number 
of  fourteen  and  fifteen  year  old  children  enumerated,  it  requires 
no  report  as  to  the  number  of  these  actually  in  school,  and  these 
data,  if  obtainable  from  each  school  office,  can  be  had  only  with  a 
great  expenditure  of  time.  The  writer  has  solicited  such  data 
from  about  seventy  schools  within  the  past  three  years  and  has 
not  received  one  usable  reply. 

To  the  extent  that  the  schools  supplying  retention  data  are 
from  cities  which  are  representative  of  their  junior  or  depart- 
mental groups,  the  data  and  the  conclusions  therefrom  have 
validity.  Very  specific  and  clear  directions  were  given  for 
collecting  the  retention  data,  and  the  reports  submitted  indicate 
a  careful  compliance  with  the  directions.  There  seems  to  be  no 
reason  to  question  their  accuracy.  Schools  with  imperfect 
records  were  candid  in  their  statement  of  the  fact  and  withdrew 
from  participation  in  the  investigation. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  data  which  may  have  been 
entirely  accurate  in  the  autumn  of  1916  may  be  completely  in 
error  a  year  later,  so  rapidly  are  schools  overhauling  their  tradi- 
tional procedure. 

The  writer  believes  that  the  inquiry  forms  were  sent  to  repre- 
sentative schools  and  that  the  fifty  per  cent  replying  are  entirely 
representative  of  reorganization  conditions  in   Indiana  public- 
schools. 

4.     LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS  REPORTING  DATA  INCLUDED  IN  THIS 
INVESTIGATION. 

a.     Those  claiming  junior  high  school  organization. 

Anderson,  Battle  Ground,  Bloomington,  Brazil, 
Buck  Creek,  Clark's  Hill,  Crawfordsville,  Dayton, 
Dunkirk,  East  Chicago,  Elkhart,  Evansville, 


8         Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Gary,  Gas  City,  Gladden,  Hartford  City,  Jackson 
Township,  Monitor,  Montmorenci,  Mount  Vernon, 
Muncie,  New  Albany,  Oakland  City,  Princeton, 
Richmond,  Romney,  Rushville,  Seymour,  Stock- 
well,  Vincennes,  Washington,  Wea,  West  La- 
fayette, West  Point,  Williamsport. 

b.  Departmental  non-junior  schools. 

Bedford,  Bluffton,  Cayuga,  Clinton,  Columbia 
City,  Connersville,  Crown  Point,  Decatur,  Frank- 
lin, Goshen,  Huntington,  Kendallville,  Kokomo, 
La  Porte,  Madison,  Marion,  Michigan  City, 
Mishawaka,  New  Castle,  Noblesville,  North 
Vernon,  Orleans,  Plymouth,  Portland,  Ridgeville, 
Rochester,  Rockport,  Royal  Center,  Salem, 
Sullivan,  Thorntown,  Wabash,  Waveland,  Wayne- 
town,  Whiting. 

c.  Non-departmental  non-junior  schools. 

Akron,  Alamo,  Angola,  Arcadia,  Argos,  Auburn, 
Batesville,  Bowers,  Darlington,  Fairmount,  Farm- 
land, Greencastle,  Ladoga,  La  Grange,  Linden, 
Loogootee,  Medora,  Middletown,  Montezuma, 
New  Market,  New  Ross,  Union  City,  Wingate. 

d.  Schools  contributing  data  on  school  achievements. 

Battle  Ground,  Buck  Creek,  Dayton,  Gladden, 
Jackson  Township,  Montmorenci,  Romney,  Stock- 
well,  Wea,  West  Point,  Alamo,  Bowers,  Darling- 
ton, Ladoga,  Linden,  New  Market,  New  Rich- 
mond, New  Ross,  Waveland,  Waynetown,  Win- 
gate. 

e.  Schools  contributing  special  data  on  retention. 

Bloomington,  Bluffton,  East  Chicago,  Hartford 
City,  Huntington,  Michigan  City,  New  Albany, 
Princeton,  Richmond,  Wabash. 


Number  Claiming  Reorganization  9 

B.     BODY. 

1.     REORGANIZATION  IN  INDIANA  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 
a.     Extent  of  the  movement  as  to  numbers  concerned. 

(1)  Representative  character  of  the  schools  reached. 

During  the  spring,  summer,  and  fall  of  1916  questionnaire 
forms,  with  a  request  for  cooperation,  were  sent  to  the  superin- 
tendents of  schools  in  all  towns  and  cities  in  Indiana  listed  by 
the  1910  Federal  census  reports  as  having  (a)  2,000  or  more 
population  (110  cities),  (b)  1,000  to  1,099,  1,200  to  1,299,  1,500  to 
1,599  population,  (c)  to  a  few  other  schools  whose  superintendents 
were  personally  known  to  the  writer,  to  certain  schools  reported 
to  have  junior  high  schools  in  various  published  articles  or  known 
by  me  personally  to  claim  such  organization,  and  to  12  additional 
consolidated  schools  in  one  county.  All  schools  in  Indiana  on  the 
North  Central  Association  accredited  list  for  1915-16  (78)  are 
included  in  the  list.  In  all  180  inquiry  blanks  were  sent  out  to  as 
many  different  schools. 

Replies,  more  or  less  usable,  were  received  from  92  schools, 
55  of  these  being  from  the  2,000  or  more  population  class  cities, 
and  37  from  schools  in  smaller  communities.  The  proportion  of 
replies  from  each  group  is  approximately  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
inquires  sent  out.  The  replies  represent  schools  in  every  part 
of  the  state  and  the  writer  is  confident  that  every  school  having 
any  serious  claim  to  junior  high  school  organization  at  the  time 
the  questionnaire  was  sent  out  has  been  reached.  Thirteen  other 
schools,  mostly  in  the  larger  cities,  indicated  departmental 
teaching  in  grammar  grades  but  gave  no  further  data,  and  hence 
are  not  included  in  this  study. 

(2)  Numbers  involved  in  varying  degrees  of  reorganization, 
(a)     Those  claiming  junior  high  school  organization,  (b)  those 

claiming  departmental  organization  only,  (c)  those  hav- 
ing neither. 

To  obtain  a  basis  of  classification  for  the  schools,  the  follow- 
ing definition  of  a  junior  high  school  was  submitted  in  the 
questionnaire:  "Have  you  a  special  organization  of  grades  7  and 
8  or  8  and  9  or  7,  8  and  9  to  provide  for  greater  differentiation  of 
studies,  easier  transition  to  the  high  school,  longer  retention  in 
school,  earlier  introduction  to  vocational  work,  etc.  (commonly 
called  a  junior  high  school)?" 


10       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

In  a  second  paragraph  on  the  type  of  organization  the  follow- 
ing was  submitted,  "Do  you  have  departmental  teaching  (special 
teachers  for  each  subject)  in  grammar  grades?  In  what  subjects?" 

Practically  all  schools  indicate  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
departmental  teaching  in  domestic  science,  manual  training, 
music,  and  art.  The  line  between  departmental  and  non-de- 
partmental schools  has  been  drawn  on  the  basis  of  departmental 
teaching  in  the  usual  common  studies  of  the  grammar  grades,  as 
arithmetic,  reading,  grammar,  history,  etc. 

Of  the  92  schools  making  usable  returns  up  to  March  1917, 
39  claimed  some  degree  of  junior  high  school  organization,  30 
claimed  departmental  teaching  only,  and  23  claimed  neither  form 
of  organization.  One  of  these  schools  entirely  withdrew  its 
claims  to  junior  high  school  organization  in  reply  to  a  second 
inquiry,  a  second  stated  that  it  really  had  inaugurated  depart- 
mental teaching  only  but  hoped  to  add  other  features  later,  and 
three  others  of  the  39  have  since  disclaimed  junior  high  school 
organization  in  reply  to  a  searching  questionnaire  recently  sent 
out  by  Doctor  Briggs  of  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University. 
These  five  I  have  transferred  to  the  departmental  school  list. 
One  other  school,  not  reporting  fully  to  me  directly,  reports  to 
Doctor  Briggs  that  it  has  reorganized  on  the  junior  high  school 
basis  in  January  1917. 

According  to  data  in  my  possession  in  April,  1917  the  93 
towns  and  cities  included  in  this  study  are  classified  as  follows 
on  the  basis  of  their  own  claims:  35  towns  or  cities  have  inter- 
mediate or  junior  high  school  organization,  with  a  total  of  38 
such  schools;  35  have  departmental  organization  only;  and  23 
are  non-departmental  schools.  Two  schools  reported  by  Doug- 
lass1 as  junior  high  schools  have  withdrawn  such  claims  in  connec- 
tion with  this  investigation. 

(3)    Supplementary  information  relative  to  junior  high  schools 
and  departmental  schools. 

1  Douglass,  A.  A.    The  Junior  High  School.    XVth  Year  Book  of  National  Soc.  for  Study  of 
Education.     Part  III.  1916:141. 


Date  of  Organization  11 

TABLE  1. 
DATE  OF  ORGANIZATION 


Before  1900.  . 

DEPARTMENT 
JUNIOR    SCHOOLS 

2 

ORGANIZATION 
DEPT.    SCHOOLS 

0 

J.  H.  S. 
ORGANIZATION 
JUNIOR    SCHOOLS 

1 

1900  to  1904 

3 

4 

o 

1905  to  1909 

8 

12 

3 

1910  to  1914  

4 

13 

6 

1915  to  1917  (April)  
Not  stated  

18 
0 

2 
4 

25 
0 

Total 

35 

35 

35 

*Median  date  .  . 

1915 

1910 

1915 

*Medians  computed  from  exact  dates  indicated  in  reports. 

TABLE  2. 
POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  TOWNS  BY  SCHOOL  TYPE  GROUPS 


POPULATION*           t 

0  to  999       .  .      .            .... 

JUNIOR    GROUP 

12 

DEPT.    GROUP 

2 
6 
7 
10 
7 
3 
0 

NON-DEPT.  GROUP 
8 

9 

5 

\ 

0 
0 

1  000  to  2  499  

2 

2  500  to  4,999  

3 

5  000  to  9,999  

6 

10,000  to  19,999  

3 

20,000  to  49,999  

8 

50  000  to 

1 

Total 

35 

35 
6.000 

23 
1.350 

tMedian  oooulation.  . 

5.000 

*  Estimated  for  1916. 

t  Exact  medians  computed  from  estimated  population  of  each  city. 


12       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

b.    Aims  and  advantages   claimed    for    the    reorganization 
movement,  and  standards  of  reorganization. 

To  evaluate  any  movement  it  is  fundamentally  important 
to  know  the  aims  its  promoters  seek  to  attain. 

The  method  employed  in  this  study  of  ascertaining  aims, 
investigating  practice,  and  determining  standards  of  the  re- 
organization movement  in  Indiana  schools  is  as  follows:  first, 
a  questionnaire  was  prepared  on  the  basis  of  a  summary  of  pre- 
vious investigations  and  junior  high  school  literature  generally; 
second,  a  list  of  eighteen  features,  often  associated  with  junior 
high  school  organization,  was  sent  to  twenty-five  Indiana  school 
men  actively  engaged  in  the  reorganization  movement  to  be 
ranked  on  the  basis  of  relative  importance  in  junior  high  school 
organization;  and  third,  the  features  of  practice  in  Indiana 
schools  have  been  tabulated  and  analyzed  in  light  of  these  tenta- 
tive standards. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  factors  submitted  for  ranking; 
with  the  request  that  other  important  features  not  listed  be  added 
if  any  such  applied  to  the  situation,  and  that  any  that  were  of 
little  or  nor  value  be  crossed  off.  Directions  were  given  to  number 
the  items  in  order  of  importance  1,  2,  3,  etc. 

ITEMS  SUBMITTED. 

(a)  Close  contact  of  grammar  school  grades  with  the  senior 
high  school  with  respect  to  housing  and  the  use  of  laboratories 
and  equipment. 

(b)  A  distinctive  organization  separate  from  the  elementary 
grades  and  the  senior  high  school. 

(c)  The  use  of  the  same  teachers  as  in  the  senior  high  school, 
both  in  academic  and  special  subjects. 

(d)  Opportunities  for  some  pupils  to  take  some  subjects  of 
the  high  school  earlier,  as  foreign  languages  or  algebra. 

(e)  Opportunity  for  pupils  to  take  more  extensive  offerings 
in  prevocational  subjects  than  the  minimum  state  requirements. 

(f)  Provision  for  greater  differentiation  of  curricula  than 
under  the  old  conditions. 

(g)  Provision  for  rapid  advancement  of  bright  groups, 
(h)     Promotion  by  subject. 

(i)     Departmental  teaching. 

(j)     Reorganized  courses  of  study. 


Aims  of  the  Reorganization  Movement  13 

(k)     Reorganized  methods  of  instruction. 

(1)      Provision  for  supervised  study. 

(m)  Provision  for  educational  and  vocational  information 
and  guidance. 

(n)     Better  organization  of  pupil  social  activities. 

(o)  Opportunity  for  over-age  pupils  regardless  of  their 
scholastic  attainments. 

(p)  Shortening  the  period  of  elementary  and  high  school 
training  by  one  year. 

(q)     Opportunity  to  discover  interests  and  capacities. 

(r)  To  provide  specific  training  along  lines  of  interest  and 
ability. 

This  list  was  checked  by  twenty-five  superintendents  and 
principals,  some  ranking  the  entire  eighteen  items  and  others 
but  five  or  six  or  ten  as  the  case  might  be,  which  they  considered 
most  important.  No  item  received  twenty-five  rankings. 


14       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Aims  of  the  Reorganization  Movement  15 

Table  3  shows  the  resulting  rankings.  The  letters  at  the  left 
indicate  the  items  in  order  as  listed  above,  while  the  numbers 
across  the  top  indicate  the  ranks  in  order  of  importance  from  1 
to  18.  The  three  columns  at  the  right  are,  in  order,  number  of 
judges  ranking  each  item,  median  rank,  and  relative  rank  deter- 
mined from  the  medians.  The  table  should  be  read  as  follows, 
beginning  at  the  upper  left  hand  corner  and  reading  to  the  right : 
item  (a)  was  ranked  as  first  in  importance  by  4  judges,  second  by 
1,  third  by  2,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  ninth,  eleventh,  twelfth,  four- 
teenth, and  sixteenth  each  by  1,  and  eighth  by  2  judges.  The 
total  number  of  judges  who  ranked  item  (a)  is  17,  their  median 
rank  is  5.5  which  gives  this  item  sixth  place  in  importance  as 
compared  with  the  ranks  assigned  the  other  items. 

On  the  basis  of  the  ranked  judgments  of  the  25  judges,  re- 
organized courses  of  study  is  entitled  to  the  most  important  con- 
sideration of  the  18  items  listed  in  junior  high  school  organiza- 
tion, opportunity  for  pupils  to  take  more  extensive  prevocational 
offerings  than  the  minimum  state  requirement  is  second,  and  then 
in  order:  provision  for  greater  differentiation  of  curricula,  op- 
portunity to  take  high  school  subjects  earlier;  departmental 
teaching,  close  association  of  grammar  grades  with  the  high 
school  with  respect  to  housing  and  the  use  of  laboratories  and 
equipment,  promotion  by  subject,  the  same  teachers  as  for  the 
high  school,  both  in  academic  and  special  subjects,  reorganized 
methods,  supervised  study,  provision  for  rapid  advancement  of 
bright  groups,  provision  for  educational  and  vocational  guidance 
and  opportunity  to  discover  interests  and  capacities  (equal  rank), 
better  organization  of  pupil  social  activities,  shortening  of  the 
twelve  year  course  and  a  distinctive  organization  separate  from 
the  elementary  or  high  school  (equal  rank),  specific  training  along 
lines  of  interest  and  ability,  and  opportunity  for  over-age  pupils 
regardless  of  their  scholastic  attainments. 

An  examination  of  the  18  items  suggests  that  they  fall  into 
certain  related  groups  which  constitute  more  natural  and  usable 
standards  than  these  isolated  items.  Items  d,  e,  and  j  are  con- 
cerned with  modifications  within  subjects  and  courses  of  study, 
usually  providing  for  enrichment;  f,  g,  and  h,  with  provision  for 
individual  differences;  c,  i,  k,  and  1,  with  method  modifications 
(c  has  been  interpreted  by  the  writer  to  have  a  marked  bearing 
upon  securing  the  spirit  of  secondary  school  methods  in  discipline 


16        Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

and  instruction);  m,  n,  and  q,  with  exploration  and  discovery  of 
interests  and  capacities.  The  remaining  five  items  seem  to  repre- 
sent more  or  less  isolated  factors,  (a)  economy  in  housing  and 
equipment,  (b)  distinctive  organization,  (o)  provision  for  over- 
age pupils,  (p)  economy  of  time,  and  (r)  specialized  training.  To 
determine  the  relative  values  of  these  group  standards,  the 
rankings  of  the  individual  items  are  combined  in  groups  as  indi- 
cated above.  Table  4  shows  these  combined  rankings. 


Aims  of  the  Reorganization  Movement  17 


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18       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

In  general,  table  4  is  to  be  read  as  is  table  3.  The  horizontal 
totals  line  represents  the  sum  of  the  group  items  immediately 
above  it,  except  that  the  median  rank  (Y)  and  the  relative  rank 
(Z)  are  computed  exactly  as  were  these  ranks  for  each  separate 
item  in  the  previous  table. 

Item  (a)  receives  a  ranking  which  gives  it  a  value  approxi- 
mately that  of  group  C  (revised  methods).  This  item  was  no 
doubt  given  undue  weight  by  many  superintendents  because 
this  combination  is  both  natural  and  necessary  in  the  small 
school,  although  several  of  the  larger  cities  also  utilize  a  common 
school  plant  for  junior  and  senior  high  schools.  However,  it 
seems  reasonable  to  assume  that  common  housing  is  not  an 
absolute  requirement  of  reorganization  although  necessary  or 
desirable  in  certain  cases.  The  remaining  four  detached  items 
are  ranked  at  the  bottom  of  the  list  and  are  apparently  deemed  of 
relatively  little  importance  as  factors  in  reorganization. 

The  relative  ranks  assigned  to  groups  A,  B,  C,  and  D  are  the 
same  whether  we  use  the  method  adopted  or  average  the  orignal 
relative  ranks. 

As  most  of  these  group  and  individual  factors  will  be  discussed 
in  a  later  section,  extensive  comparisons  will  not  be  made  at  this 
point.  However,  I  shall  offer  a  probable  explanation  for  the 
apparently  low  ranking  given  provision  for  exploration  and 
guidance,  which  receives  very  prominent  mention  in  statements 
of  aims  in  the  literature  on  reorganization.  Probably  the  most 
fundamental  provision  for  this  is  thru  the  enrichment  of  the 
courses  of  study  which  has  already  been  provided  for  in  group  A. 
It  is  also  provided  for  in  a  measure  thru  differentiated  curricula 
and  revised  methods;  hence,  as  a  separate  factor,  it  is  properly 
assigned  a  place  below  other  factors  thru  which  it  is  realized. 

Recent  educational  literature  emphasizes  provision  for  the 
over-age  child  in  the  junior  high  school,  but  Indiana  superin- 
tendents are  apparently  not  in  accord  with  this  view  in  theory  as 
we  shall  later  see  they  are  not  in  practice.  Highly  specialized 
training  of  the  vocational  type  is  not  judged  to  be  an  important 
function  of  the  junior  high  school.  This  is  in  agreement  with 
Snedden2  who  says  that  it  is  right  and  proper  that  this  period 
from  12  to  14  should  continue  to  be  reserved  for  general  educa- 
tion (cultural,  physical,  and  social  education)  and  that  no  specific 

*  Snedden,  D.     "Character  and  Extent  of  Desired  Flexibility  as  to  Courses  of  Instruction 
and  Training  for  Youths  of  12  to  14  Years  of  Age".    Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.,  2:233. 


Aims  of  the  Reorganization  Movement  19 

vocational  education  should  be  offered  in  it.  There  is  apparently 
little  opinion  in  favor  of  shortening  the  period  of  school  training 
except  thru  provision  for  accelerant  groups.  No  doubt  the 
opinion  that  the  course  should  be  enriched  rather  than  shortened 
is  the  prevailing  one. 

On  the  basis  of  these  rankings,  then,  we  shall  consider  revised 
courses  of  study,  provision  for  individual  differences,  modified 
methods,  and  provision  for  exploration  and  guidance  as  of  highest 
value  in  the  order  given  in  the  examination  of  procedure  and 
practice  in  Indiana  schools. 


20       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

c.  Standards  of  practice  in  Indiana  reorganized  grammar 
grades. 

I  have  based  my  investigation  of  this  phase  of  the  study  upon 
the  work  of  the  eighth  grade  as  representing  the  one  grade  found 
in  all  types  of  junior  high  school  grouping  in  Indiana  schools,  and 
as  typifying  the  most  characteristically  transition  grade  between 
the  elementary  and  the  high  school,  and  as  representing  the 
grade  against  which  the  chief  charges  have  been  made  of  useless 
repetition  and  formal,  impractical,  and  uninteresting  content. 

The  traditional  subjects  of  the  eighth  grade,  now  yielding 
to  more  or  less  marked  modifications,  are  reading,  grammar, 
spelling,  writing,  arithmetic,  history,  geography,  and  physiology. 
The  reading  material  too  often  consisted  of  numerous  short 
selections,  often  over-difficult  and  ill  adapted  to  the  interests  of 
youths  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  devoid  of  value  for 
information  or  for  literary  enjoyment  and  appreciation.  The 
grammar  was  usually  of  the  technical  sort  with  little  or  no  appli- 
cation to  written  or  oral  composition.  Spelling,  to  a  large  extent 
consisted  of  formal  word  lists,  seldom  used  by  adults  and  of 
unusual  difficulty,  and  taught  without  regard  to  daily  use  in 
written  work.  Writing  was  a  continued  drill  on  form  regardless 
of  the  need  for  improvement.  In  arithmetic  much  stress  was 
placed  on  difficult,  little  used,  and  obsolete  phases  for  the  purpose 
of  mental  discipline.  In  both  history  and  geography  emphasis 
was  generally  placed  on  the  memory-for-uninteresting-and 
detached  facts  type;  while  physiology  was  a  memory  exercise 
in  anatomy  with  little  regard  to  its  functioning.  As  a  rule  each 
of  these  subjects  was  on  the  daily  program  of  each  pupil  for  a 
period  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  minutes.  The  extent  to 
which  traditional  subject  matter  and  modes  of  treatment  are 
still  followed  may  be  inferred  in  part  by  reference  to  the  pro- 
motional examinations  given  by  county  superintendents  to  eighth 
grade  pupils  in  March,  April,  and  May  of  each  year,  and  by 
reference  to  teachers'  examinations  in  the  common  school  subjects 
which  may  be  found  in  the  Educator  Journal  from  month  to 
month. 

(1)    PROGRAMS  OF  STUDY  AND  SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY 
MODIFICATIONS. 

I  shall  indicate  the  program  of  studies  for  the  eighth  grade  for 
each  school,  noting  required  and  elective  subjects  in  the  general 


Programs  of  Study  21 

curriculum,  with  the  time  devoted  to  each  subject  weekly,  also 
what  subjects  the  superintendent  says  have  been  considerably 
modified  as  to  content  recently.  In  English  the  time  given  to 
the  various  elements  will  be  indicated  where  data  are  available 
as  a  basis  for  judging  the  relative  emphasis.  The  presence  of 
civics  as  a  separate  course  or  as  a  distinct  phase  of  the  history 
course  will  be  noted  together  with  the  reference  or  text  books  used 
for  such  civics  work.  In  mathematics  any  indications  of  a  ten- 
dency towards  general  methematics,  a  partial  year's  work  in 
algebra,  or  other  modification  of  the  traditional  course  will  be 
noted.  Whereever  general  science  is  offered  in  the  ninth  grade, 
but  not  in  the  eighth,  the  fact  will  be  stated. 

In  the  majority  of  these  schools  industrial  and  household 
arts  and  agriculture  have  been  introduced  since  1913,  the  date 
of  the  Indiana  vocational  education  law,  and  not  more  than 
three  or  four  schools  have  had  such  work  in  this  grade  to  exceed 
ten  years.  General  science  is  a  new  acquisition  also,  as  is  civics 
where  it  receives  any  marked  consideration,  at  least  if  the 
emphasis  is  on  the  community  civics  type.  Definite  provision 
for  physical  training  is  also,  generally,  a  new  requirement. 
Music  and  drawing  are  comparatively  new  in  several  schools, 
while  in  others  they  have  been  represented  on  the  program  for 
twenty-five  years  or  more. 


22       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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24       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Programs  of  Study  25 

Table  5  should  be  read,  beginning  with  school  number  1 
and  reading  vertically  down  the  column :  in  school  No.  1  changes 
have  been  made  in  the  English  work  which  is  given  5  periods  a 
week;  literature,  2  periods;  grammar-composition,  3  periods; 
spelling  incidental  to  various  school  subjects;  writing  not  given 
at  all;  changes  are  indicated  in  arithmetic  which  is  given  daily 
for  one-half  year,  with  algebra  daily  for  the  second  half  year; 
changes  are  indicated  in  the  history-civics  work,  but  civics  is 
not  given  as  a  separate  course;  geography  and  physiology- 
hygiene  are  each  given  daily  for  one-half  year;  general  science  is 
offered  in  grade  nine;  agriculture  is  not  given;  household  and 
manual  arts  are  each  required  2  periods  a  week  and  are  elective 
for  5  additional  periods  for  some  pupils;  drawing,  music,  and 
physical  training  are  each  required  for  1  period  a  week;  and 
German,  Latin,  and  commercial  work  are  each  elective  5  periods 
a  week. 

SUMMARY  OF  COURSE  OF  STUDY  CONDITIONS. 

New  Subjects 

Household  arts,  manual  arts  or  agriculture  are  required  in 
every  school  at  least  two  periods  a  week,  the  minimum  require- 
ment of  the  State  Board  of  Education.1  In  three  schools  as 
much  as  7  periods  a  week  may  be  taken  along  these  lines  by  any 
pupil  so  electing  to  do.  Agriculture  is  required  in  the  eighth 
grade  in  19  of  the  35  schools.  The  average  number  of  periods 
required  a  week  in  these  practical  arts  subjects  is  2.6,  and  8 
schools  offer  additional  work  as  elective. 

General  science  is  required  in  15  schools  in  the  eighth  grade, 
and  may  be  taken  with  the  ninth  grade  in  three  others.  Other 
data  in  my  possession  show  that  in  still  10  other  schools  this 
subject  is  offered  in  the  ninth  grade,  but  not  to  eighth  grade 
pupils.  Thus  general  science  is  offered,  either  required  or  elective, 
in  the  eighth  or  ninth  grades  of  28  of  the  35  schools  of  this  group. 

In  30  of  the  35  schools  at  least  one  subject  usually  taught  in 
the  high  school  is  available  to  all  or  part  of  the  pupils  of  the  eighth 
grade,  in  22  schools  to  the  eighth  grade  pupils  as  class  groups, 
and  in  the  remaining  schools  to  individual  pupils  with  ninth 
grade  classes.  Algebra  is  required  in  5  schools  in  grade  8A  and  is 
elective  in  3  schools  as  a  ninth  grade  subject,  open  to  some 

1  Uniform  Course  of  Study  for  the  El.  Schools  of  Ind.  1915-16:214. 


26       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

pupils  of  the  eighth  grade.  Latin  is  an  elective  for  eighth  grade 
pupils  in  1 2  schools.  German  is  required  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  of  12  schools  and  is  elective  for  eighth  grade  pupils  (and 
in  a  majority  of  these  for  the  seventh  also)  in  15  other  schools. 
Thus  German  is  available  in  27  schools  to  some  or  all  eighth 
grade  pupils. 

The  relatively  large  offering  in  German  is,  no  doubt,  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Indiana  has  a  very  large  population 
of  German  descent,  and  this  factor  is  especially  prominent  in 
Tippecanoe  county  where  12  of  the  junior  high  schools  require 
German  in  grades  seven  and  eight.  So  influential  is  this  nationality 
factor  in  the  state  that  legal  provision  is  made  for  the  compulsory 
introduction  of  German  in  the  elementary  grades  on  petition. 

The  legal  provision  follows.  " and  whenever  the 

parents  or  guardians  of  25  or  more  children  in  attendance  at  any 
school  of  a  township,  town,  or  city  shall  so  demand,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  school  trustee  of  said  township,  town,  or  city  to 
procure  efficient  teachers  and  introduce  the  German  language, 
as  a  branch  of  study,  in  such  schools".2  (The  above  stated  pro- 
vision is  given  under  'branches  taught'  in  the  elementary  schools.) 

Commercial  work  is  elective  in  6  schools  for  eighth  grade 
pupils.  In  two  of  these  schools  it  constitutes  a  part  of  the  regular 
eighth  grade  vocational  course,  and  in  the  other  4  schools  ninth 
grade  commercial  work  is  elective  to  certain  eighth  grade  pupils. 

Free-hand  drawing  is  required  or  elective  one  or  more  periods 
a  week  (generally  1  or  2)  in  each  of  the  35  schools. 

Music  is  required  in  34  of  these  schools  and  elective  in  one, 
the  number  of  weekly  periods  being  about  evenly  divided  between 
one  or  two. 

Physical  training  is  required  in  10  schools  and  is  elective  in 
one.  Two  periods  a  week  is  the  more  common  time  devoted  to  it 
where  offered. 

Old  Subjects  That  Have  Been  Under-going  More  or  Less 
Modification  Recently. 

ENGLISH 

Twenty-seven  of  these  schools  indicate  changes  in  the  courses 
in  English,  especially  in  the  type  of  literary  selections  read  (for 
the  most  part  conforming  to  the  state  course  of  study),  in  a 
decided  shift  of  emphasis  from  formal  grammar  to  composition 

1  Ind.  School  Law,  1911.  p.  108.  Also,  Ind.  Rev.  Stat.  1908,  art.  6582. 


Programs  of  Study  27 

and  grammar  with  spelling  often  attached  to  the  composition, 
and  in  a  greater  unifying  of  the  English  work.  The  time  distribu- 
tion for  the  English  group  of  subjects  indicates  a  marked  reduc- 
tion in  the  total  number  of  periods  devoted  to  English  as  compared 
with  the  old  order.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in  most  of 
these  schools  the  length  of  the  recitation  and  study  periods 
combined  have  been  lengthened  over  the  old  recitation  period, 
but  that  the  actual  time  given  to  the  recitation  proper  remains 
about  the  same. 

Twelve  schools  assign  English  4  periods  a  week;  10,  5  periods 
(1  of  these  for  one-half  year  only);  1,  6  periods;  3,  7  periods; 
3,  8  periods;  3,  9  periods;  1,  11  periods;  1,  12  periods;  and  1,  15 
periods.  The  median  time  for  the  35  schools  is  5  periods  a  week 
and  the  average,  6.1  periods.  Penmanship,  which  is  properly 
no  part  of  the  English  work,  is  included  in  this  summary.  If 
we  omit  this  subject  our  distribution  will  be  12  schools,  4  periods 
a  week;  9,  5  periods;  3,  6  periods;  5,  7  periods;  1,  8  periods; 
2,  10  periods;  1,  12  periods;  and  1  not  indicated;  a  median  of  5 
periods  and  an  average  of  5.6  periods. 

The  time  distribution  for  literature  alone  is:  21  schools,  2 
periods  a  week;  3,  3  periods;  1,  4  periods;  1,  5  periods;  and  in  9 
the  total  time  only  is  indicated  with  no  distribution  among  all 
the  subordinate  elements.  The  median  for  the  26  reporting  the 
detailed  distribution  is  2  periods  with  an  average  of  2.3  periods. 

In  grammar-composition  13  schools  assign  2  periods  a  week; 
7,  3  periods;  3,  4  periods;  3,  5  periods;  and  9  do  not  indicate  the 
time  distribution.  The  median  for  the  26  schools  is  2.5  periods 
and  the  average  2.8  periods.  This  includes  spelling  in  several 
schools  where  this  is  incidental  in  the  composition  work.  The 
correct  average  should  probably  be  about  2.5  periods  to  composi- 
tion-grammar alone. 

For  spelling  alone,  8  schools  assign  no  periods;  1,  J^  period; 
2,  1  period;  2,  lJ/£  periods;  4,  2  periods;  2,  2J^  periods;  14,  a  small 
amount  of  time  in  connection  with  composition;  and  2  with 
spelling  time  undistributed.  Assuming  from  .2  to  .3  periods  for 
the  14  which  offer  spelling  in  combination,  the  median  time  would 
be  .25  period  and  the  average  .67  for  the  33  schools. 

Writing  shows  25  schools  assigning  no  time;  3,  1  period;  1, 
1  y%  periods;  4,  2  periods;  1,  2J/£  periods;  and  one  without  distribu- 
tion of  writing  time.  The  median  for  the  34  schools  is  0  periods 
and  the  average  .5  periods  a  week. 


28       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

HISTORY-CIVICS 

One  school  requires  7  periods  a  week  in  this  group  of  subjects; 
18,  5  periods;  15,  4  periods;  and  1,  5  periods  for  a  half  year  only 
In  one  of  the  5  period  schools  geography  is  included  but  additional 
emphasis  is  given  to  history  and  civics  work  in  the  audi- 
torium periods.  One  school  requires  3  periods  a  week  in 
civics;  4,  5  periods  for  a  half  year;  1  offers  industrial  history  as  a 
ninth  grade  subject  elective  for  many  eighth  grade  pupils;  4 
others  indicate  that  civics  is  given  the  equivalent  of  1  or  1J^ 
periods;  while  7  announce  special  attention  to  civics  but  do  not 
indicate  the  time.  If  the  state  course  of  tudy  is  followed,  some 
time  is  probably  devoted  to  civics  in  every  school,  although  the 
state  course  calls  for  a  very  formal  type  of  constitutional  dissec- 
tion. The  fact  that  Dunn's  Community  and  the  Citizen  or 
Nida's  The  City,  State,  and  Nation  is  used  as  a  text  in  several 
schools  indicates  a  tendency  to  break  away  from  the  traditional 
type  of  social  science  commonly  given  in  the  past.  The  median 
time  given  to  the  social  science  studies  (not  including  geography) 
is  5  periods  a  week  with  an  average  of  4.6  periods. 

MATHEMATICS 

In  19  schools  mathematics  is  required  5  periods  a  week,  and 
in  the  remaing  16,  4  periods  a  week.  The  median  requirement  is 
5  periods  and  the  average  4.6  periods.  Four  schools  require 
algebra  in  grade  8A,  while  in  3  it  is  elective  for  many  eighth 
grade  pupils.  A  course  in  general  mathematics  (arithmetic, 
elementary  algebra,  and  observational  geometry)  is  reported  by 
by  school  number  10.  In  school  number  20  certain  pupils  may 
elect  commercial  arithmetic,  and  in  school  35,  bookkeeping. 
Nineteen  other  schools  indicate  more  emphasis  on  fundamentals 
or  other  changes  in  the  traditional  course,  and  3  are  planning  to 
introduce  general  mathematics  soon.  One  school  offers  vocational 
arithmetic  in  its  vocational  course.  One  of  these  schools  in  its 
printed  syllabus  for  grade  8B  announces  ratio,  proportion, 
partnership,  powers,  roots,  mensuration,  longitude  and  time, 
public  lands,  and  the  metric  system  as  the  topics  for  considera- 
tion, the  very  topics  most  often  indicated  for  omission  by  the 
Committee  on  the  Economy  of  Time3  and  other  organizations 
attempting  to  bring  about  reorganization  in  grammar  grade 
mathematics. 

3  Jessup,  W.    Economy  of  Time  in  Arithmetic.    El.  S.  Teacher.  14:461, 


Programs  of  Study  29 

GEOGRAPHY 

But  9  schools  require  geography  in  grade  eight,  although  it 
is  required  by  all  in  grade  seven.  Two  schools  require  5  periods 
a  week  for  a  half  year;  1,  3  periods  for  a  year,  1,  3  periods  for  a 
half  year;  and  5  do  not  indicate  the  time. 

PHYSIOLOGY-HYGIENE 

Physiology-hygiene  is  required  in  17  of  the  35  schools  in  time 
varying  from  1  to  5  periods  weekly,  the  median  for  the  15  indicat- 
ing time  being  2J^  periods,  and  the  average  1.2  for  the  33  schools 
reporting  time  or  no  time.  Every  school,  except  numbers  10, 
12,  and  27  requires  some  science  work  in  the  eighth  grade,  either 
physiology-hygiene,  general  science,  or  geography.  In  school 
27  general  science  is  elective  for  some  eighth  grade  pupils. 

ELECTIVES 

Sixteen  schools  indicate  some  regular  arrangement  for  elec- 
tives  for  certain  groups  of  pupils,  in  all  but  four  of  these  schools 
for  bright  pupils  only.  Where  the  grammar  grades  are  housed 
with  the  high  school,  no  doubt  individual  arrangement  is  also 
made  by  some  of  the  other  schools  for  bright  pupils  to  carry  an 
extra  subject,  but  it  is  not  announced  as  a  regular  provision. 

Agriculture  is  elective  in  the  eighth  grade  in  1  school ;  algebra 
in  3 ;  commercial  subjects  in  6 ;  drawing  in  1 ;  ninth  grade  English 
in  2 ;  an  additional  special  course  in  English  in  1 ;  general  science 
in  3 ;  German  in  15  (in  one  school  only  for  those  who  have  studied 
it  from  the  first  grade) ;  industrial  history  in  1 ;  household  arts 
in  6;  Latin  in  12;  manual  arts  in  7;  music  in  1;  and  physical 
training  in  1.  As  noted  elsewhere  in  this  study,  12  of  the  smallest 
of  these  schools  have  radically  changed  the  eighth  grade  work  by 
requiring  general  science  and  German  each  4  periods  weekly,  but 
owing  to  the  small  size  of  classes  it  is  not  possible  to  make  these 
courses  elective.  One  of  the  larger  schools,  number  30,  has  made 
decided  modifications  in  its  program  of  work  but  offers  no  high 
school  subjects  nor  electives  to  pupils  below  grade  nine. 

Schools  11,  12,  21,  and  22  are  in  cities  having  25,000  or  more 
population  and  could  easily  provide  wel  differentiated  courses 
and  elective  studies.  They  all  provide  for  accelerant  and  slow 
moving  groups  in  a  limited  way.  Slight  modifications  probably 


30     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

have  been  made  in  the  traditional  subjects,  but  the  time  dis- 
tribution for  22  indicates  12  periods  weekly  for  English.  Num- 
ber 11  offers  German  for  a  limited  number  of  bright  pupils  in 
grades  seven  and  eight,  but  indicates  no  other  marked  plan  of 
differentiation.  School  12  offers  German  in  grade  eight  to  those 
who  have  had  it  for  seven  years,  and  also  permits  a  few  pupils  to 
take  physical  training  and  music  as  elective  work,  otherwise 
offering  no  high  school  subjects  and  permitting  no  extra  work. 
School  21  adjusts  individual  programs  in  exceptional  cases,  but 
has  no  definite  system  of  differentiation  or  options.  School  22 
offers  no  options  or  electives,  permits  no  extra  subjects,  and  pro- 
vides no  differentiated  courses.  Schools  24  and  31,  being  in 
cities  of  less  than  10,000  population,  can  probably  not  afford  any 
extensive  offering  of  differentiated  courses,  but  it  would  seem 
possible  for  them  to  offer  more  of  the  practical  arts  and  possibly 
one  high  school  subject  by  cutting  down  on  the  excessive  require- 
ments in  formal  English.  Several  of  these  schools  have  apparently 
made  no  more  changes  in  the  traditional  studies  than  the  majority 
of  Indiana  schools  not  claiming  junior  high  schools,  and  they  have 
made  no  provision  for  individual  differences  thru  electives  or 
differentiated  courses.  They  are  apparently  basing  their  junior 
high  school  claims  almost  exclusively  on  the  fact  that  they  have 
introduced  departmental  teaching.  It  should  be  added  that  at 
least  two  of  these  six  are  working  on  definite  plans  of  reorganiza- 
tion at  the  present  time. 

To  summarize,  the  typical  Indiana  junior  high  school  requires 
in  the  eighth  grade  the  following  program:  English  5  periods  a 
week  (approximately  2  to  literature  and  3  to  grammar-composi- 
tion combined);  arithmetic  4  or  5  periods  a  week;  history  4  or 
5  periods  a  week  (with  definite  work  in  civics  in  about  one-half 
the  schools  and  with  an  increasing  tendency  towards  community 
civics);  general  science  4  or  5  periods  a  week  or  physiology- 
hygiene  geography  2  or  3  periods;  household  or  industrial  arts  or 
agriculture  2.6  periods  a  week;  drawing  and  music  each  1.3 
periods:  and  physical  training  somewhat  less  than  2  periods  a 
week  (in  one- third  the  schools  only). 

Elective  subjects  are:  household  or  industrial  arts  and 
agriculture  2  to  5  periods  a  week  (in  7  schools  only),  and  foreign 
language  4  or  5  periods  (most  frequently  German  and  required 
rather  than  elective  in  12  of  the  27  schools  in  which  offered). 
Also  it  is  to  be  noted  that  as  a  rule  electives,  outside  the  practical 


Programs  of  Study  31 

arts,  are  open  only  to  pupils  above  average  in  academic  ability. 

In  the  report  of  the  Richmond,  Indiana,  Survey,  director 
Leonard4  refers  to  the  plan  of  confining  election  in  the  practical 
arts  work  to  pupils  of  inferior  ability  as  a  limitation  of  the 
present  plan  of  organization  in  the  junior  high  school  in  that  city. 
Relative  to  elective  subjects,  he  says:  "Subjects  offered  as 
electives  should  be  those  which  have  appreciable  identity  with 
occupational  activities  or  with  lines  of  interest  leading  to  well- 
defined  courses  to  which  they  are  fundamental." 

Data  submitted  by  28  of  these  same  schools  for  the  seventh 
grade  program  of  studies  show  the  following  average  program. 
Required:  English  6.2  periods  a  week,  arithmetic  4.5,  history 
4.2,  geography  2.7,  physiology-hygiene  2,  agriculture  or  manual 
training  2.1,  domestic  science  2.3,  drawing  and  music  1.5  each, 
German  (in  12  schools)  4,  and  physical  training  (5  schools  only) 
2.  Elective:  German  or  Latin  in  4  schools,  additional  work  in 
manual  or  domestic  arts  4  schools,  commercial  work  1  school, 
and  agriculture  1  school  (twice  a  week). 

Data  submitted  by  27  of  the  junior  type  schools  show  the 
following  typical  average  program  for  the  ninth  grade.  Re- 
quired: English  5  periods  a  week,  algebra  5,  foreign  language 
(Latin  or  German)  5.  Elective:  science  5  periods  a  week, 
manual  or  domestic  arts  5  double  periods,  drawing  and  music 
(in  most  of  the  schools)  1  or  2  periods,  physical  training  (in  less 
than  one-third  the  schools)  2  periods,  commercial  work  (in  one- 
third  the  schools  and  chiefly  commercial  arithmetic  or  book- 
keeping) 5  periods,  industrial  vocational  courses  in  5  or  6  schools 
only,  and  ancient  history  in  about  one-sixth  of  the  schools. 

Having  ascertained  the  standards  of  practice  among  Indiana 
junior  high  schools  relative  to  subjects  of  study  modifications  and 
differentiation  of  courses,  the  question  arises,  to  what  extent  are 
these  standards  in  agreement  with  junior  high  school  practice 
generally,  and  with  current  educational  opinion?  What  subject 
modifications  and  what  degree  of  differentiation  are  desirable  in 
reorganized  schools? 

Davis  advises  the  following  program  of  studies.  "In  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  each  pupil's  program  should  include: 
(1)  English;  (2)  history,  civics  and  geography;  (3)  ethics  and 
sociology;  (4)  physiology  and  hygiene;  (5)  mathematics  (includ- 
ing arithmetic,  algebra  and  geometry);  (6)  elementary  science; 
(7)  manual  training  or  household  arts;  (8)  music  and  fine  arts; 

•  Leonard,  R.  J.     Report  of  the  Richmond,  Indiana,  Survey  for  Vocational  Education. 
(Ind.  State  Board  of  Ed.  1916)  pp.  513,  548. 


32       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

(9)  drawing;  (10)  voice  culture,  public  speaking,  and  dramatics; 
(11)  physical  training;  and  in  addition  opportunity  should  be 
given  for  one  or  two  or  three  elective  studies."8 

Francis6  recommends  the  following  for  the  general  course  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades: 

REQUIRED  SUBJECTS  ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 

7th  GRADE 

English 5  periods        Foreign  language 5  periods 

Arithmetic 5  periods         Bookkeeping       or      stenog- 

Geography-history 5  periods  raphy 5  periods 

Physical  training 1  period  (select  one) 

Music 2  periods 

Drawing 2  periods 

Penmanship 2  periods 

Practical  arts 4  periods 

8th  GRADE 

English 5  periods        Foreign  Language 5  periods 

History-civics 5  periods         Bookkeeping 5  periods 

Physical  training 2  periods        Stenography 5  periods 

Oral  English-music 2  periods        Arithmetic-algebra 5  periods 

Physiology-hygiene 2  periods         Drawing 5  periods 

Practical  arts 4  periods  (select  two) 

The  Butte  Survey  Committee7   recommends   the   following 
subjects  for  the  general  course  for  grades  seven  and  eight: 

REQUIRED  SUBJECTS  ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 

7th  GRADE 

English 5  periods        Foreign  language 5  periods 

History 5  periods         Bookkeeping  and   business 

Geography 5  periods  arithmetic 5  periods 

Arithmetic 5  periods  (select  one) 

Physical  training 2  periods 

Drawing 2  periods 

Music 2  periods 

Practical  arts 4  periods 

8th  GRADE 

English 5  periods        Foreign  language 5  periods 

History-civics 5  periods  Bookkeeping  and   business 

General  science 3  periods  arithmetic 5  periods 

Physiology-hygiene 2  periods  Mathematics  (algebra  and 

Drawing 2  periods  geometry) 5  periods 

Music 2  periods  (select  two) 

Physical  training 1  period 

Practical  arts 4  periods 

6  Davis,  C.  O.     Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  Ch.  IV.  in  Johnston's  High  School 
Education  p.  97.    New  York,  1912. 

«  Francis,  J.  H.     The  Portland,  Ore.,  Survey,  1913.  p.  196. 

7  The  Butte,  Mont.,  Survey,  1914.  p.  65. 


Programs  of  Study 


33 


Leonard8  recommends  the  following  junior  high  school  courses 
in  the  light  of  the  findings  of  the  Richmond,  Indiana,  Survey: 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS 

FIRST  YEAR, 

English 5  periods 

History 3  periods 

Geography 4  periods 

Arithmetic 4  periods 

Industrial  arts 4  periods 

Household  arts 4  periods 

Fine  arts 2  periods 

Music 2  periods 

Physical  education  and  hy- 
giene   2  periods 


ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 
7th  GRADE 

Latin 4  periods 

French 4  periods 

Spanish 4  periods 

German 4  periods 

CommerciaJ 4  periods 

Industrial  arts 4  periods 

Household  arts 4  periods 

Agriculture 4  periods 


SECOND  YEAR,  8th  GRADE 


English 4  periods 

History-civics 3  periods 

Elementary  science 4  periods 

Industrial  arts 4  periods 

Household  arts 4  periods 

Music  or  fine  arts 2  periods 

Physical  education 2  periods 

Study  of  vocations 1  period 


Latin 4  periods 

French 4  periods 

Spanish 4  periods 

German 4  periods 

Industrial  arts 4  or  8  periods 

Household  arts 4  or  8  periods 

Agriculture 4  or  8  periods 

Commercial 4  or  8  periods 

Drawing  and  design. . .  4  or  8  periods 

Music 2  or  4  periods 

Mathematics 4  periods 


THIRD  YEAR,  9th  GRADE 


English 4  periods 

History-civics 4  periods 

Geography  or  science 4  periods 

Physical  education-hygiene .  2  periods 
Study  of  vocations 1  period 


Latin 4  periods 

French 4  periods 

Spanish 4  periods 

German 4  periods 

Commercial 4  or  8  periods 

Industrial  arts 4  or  8  periods 

Household  arts 4  or  8  periods 

Agriculture 4  or  8  periods 

Drawing  and  design. . .  4  or  8  periods 

Music 2  or  4  periods 

Mathematics 4  periods 

Science 4  periods 


(Six  50-minute  periods  are  to  constitute  a  day.) 


•  See  reference  4.  just  cited,    p.  550. 


34       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Snedden  advocates  a  course  of  study  having  "a  large  range 
of  elective  or  optional  studies  in  addition  to  certain  essentials  in 
English  language,  English  literature,  American  history,  commu- 
nity civics,  and  geography."9  Elsewhere,10  he  specifically 
mentions  as  desirable  optional  subjects  modern  languages  and 
practical  arts,  including  manual  training,  commercial  subjects, 
agriculture,  and  household  arts,  but  not  compulsory  for  all. 
Snedden11  also  makes  a  clear  distinction  between  doing  or  ex- 
pressive subjects  and  those  whose  chief  function  is  the  develop- 
ment of  appreciation,  and  believes  that  the  latter  type  of  material 
should  be  utilized  more  largely  in  the  school  program. 

Bonser12  recommends  the  following  distribution  of  subjects 
and  points  for  the  junior  high  school  consisting  of  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  grades,  30  points  constituting  a  year's  work. 
Common  subject  matter  for  all,  54  points,  are  distributed  thus; 
English  12,  history  8,  geography  8,  elementary  science  8,  every 
day  mathematics  8,  civics  and  problems  in  industrial  and  voca- 
tional life  6,  physical  education  6,  and  music  3.  He  advises  36 
points  of  optional  matter  to  be  chosen  from  any  of  the  above 
named  or  to  be  distributed.  His  plan  provides  for  a  maximum 
of  two-fifths  optional  work. 

Briggs,13  who  is  an  advocate  of  the  exploratory  function  of 
adolescent  education,  advises  extensive  reading  of  many  classics 
in  literature  for  appreciation,  oral  and  written  composition  rather 
than  formal  grammar,  music  and  pictorial  art  for  appreciation, 
general  history  and  community  civics,  general  mathematics 
(including  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  constructive  geometry), 
general  science,  and  varied  projects  in  the  industrial  arts,  and 
possibly  one  general  elective.  "Exploration"  he  says,  "should 
give  some  knowledge  of  many  fields  to  be  treated  more  exhaustive- 
ly later." 

A  committee  of  the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Secondary  Schools14  recommends  the  following  subjects  or 
subject  groups  for  the  junior  high  school:  (1)  mathematics,  (2) 
natural  science,  (3)  social  science,  (4)  language,  (5)  fine  and 
practical  arts;  and  also  physical  training  and  medical  inspection 

•  Snedden,  D.    "Reorganization  of  Education  for  Children  from  12  to  14  Years  of  Age. 
Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2:425. 

10  Snedden,  D.     Problems  of  Secondary  Education,     p.  231.    New  York,  1917. 

«  Snedden,  D.    "Character  and  Extent  of  Desirable  Flexibility  as  to  Courses  of  Instruction 
for  Youths  of  12  to  14  Years  of  Age."    Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2:219. 

K  Bonser,  F.  G.     "Democratizing  Secondary  Education  by  the  6-3-3  Plan".     Ed.  Adm.  & 
Sup.  1  :S67-576. 

"  Briggs,  T.  H.     "Possibilities  of  the  Junior  High  School"  Education.  37:279. 

14  Proceedings  of  the  N.  C.  A.  of  Colleges  &  Secondary  Schools,  1916. 


Programs  of  Study  35 

without  reference  to  graduation  credit.  The  report  further  says 
that  a  stereotyped  line  of  work  for  all  is  to  be  avoided,  and  advises 
continuity  in  three  of  the  five  lines,  and  an  opportunity  for  a  wide 
distribution  of  electives. 

The  Committee  on  the  Economy  of  Time  in  Education15 
recommends  the  inclusion  of  the  two  last  elementary  grades  with 
the  high  school,  and  the  beginning  of  foreign  languages,  ele- 
mentary algebra,  constructive  geometry,  elementary  science, 
and  history  two  years  earlier.  It  also  recommends  that  subject 
matter  be  selected  on  the  basis  of  relative  values  and  that  only 
the  more  important  be  included,  and  that  methods  be  differen- 
tiated for  formal  and  content  material.  The  introduction  of  the 
prevocational  arts  is  favored  from  the  age  of  twelve. 

Douglass  reports  the  following  as  typical  curricula  for  the 
junior  high  school:  "7th  grade;  English  6  periods  a  week,  with 
reading,  writing,  grammar,  spelling  and  penmanship  taught 
separately  or  in  rather  poor  coordination  under  the  general 
heading;  social  science  (5),  presented  as  history  and  geography ; 
mathematics  (5),  meaning  arithmetic ;  physiology  and  hygiene  (3) ; 
or  physical  training  (2);  drawing  (2);  and,  perhaps,  music  (2); 
manual  training  (2)  or  domestic  science  (2).  8th  grade,  English 
(5);  history  (5)  or  civics  (5);  arithmetic  (5);  physiology  and 
hygiene  (3)  or  physical  training  (2) ;  music  (2)  or  drawing  (2) ; 
and  an  option  between  Latin  or  German  (5)  and  manual  training 
or  domestic  science  (2) .  Real  differentiation  is  under  way  in  the 
ninth  grade.  Here  the  only  required  subject  is  English,  and 
options  are  allowed,  under  supervision,  to  the  extent  that  the 
pupil  practically  selects  his  own  work.  He  may  choose  among 
Latin,  German,  history,  algebra,  general  sciences,  music  and 
drawing,  manual  or  industrial  arts  and  domestic  science,  and 
certain  commercial  subjects."16 

Educators  are  in  rather  general  agreement  as  to  the  subjects 
that  ought  to  have  a  place  in  the  reorganized  school,  that  mod- 
ifications ought  to  be  made  in  the  old  subjects  looking  to  a  more 
socialized  content,  and  that  certain  high  school  subjects  as  foreign 
languages  should  be  introduced,  but  there  is  far  less  agreement  as 
to  the  specific  content  of  each  of  these  subjects  and  the  methods 
by  which  they  are  to  be  taught,  the  time  allotment  of  some  of 
them,  and  the  extent  of  options.  In  foreign  language,  for  example, 

15  Report  of  Com.  on  Economy  of  Time  in  Education.    U.  S.  Bur.  Ed.  Bui.  38,  1913. 
»  Douglass,  A.  A.     The  Junior  High  School.    XVth  Year  Book  of  Nat.  Soc.  for  the  Study 
of  Ed.  part  III.  1916.  p.  82. 


36       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

there  are  those  who  would  transfer  the  grammar-translation 
method  of  the  traditional  ninth  grade  bodily  to  the  seventh 
grade,  while  others,  as  Davis,17  Briggs,18  and  the  Committee 
on  Foreign  Languages19  of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Education  suggest  a  beginning  course  "about"  foreign 
language  to  give  a  knowledge  of  the  people,  customs,  institutions, 
and  geography  of  the  country  whose  language  is  being  studied, 
with  a  smaller  amount  of  time  given  to  the  more  formal  elements 
of  the  language  itself,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  immediate  value 
and  of  stimulating  interest  to  want  more.  The  first  two  of  the 
above  named  authorities  with  Breslich,20  Taylor,21  and  others 
advise  a  modified  program  of  mathematics  for  the  eighth  or 
ninth  grades  to  include  the  mastery  of  the  simpler  parts  of 
commercial  arithmetic,  with  much  practice  on  computing  and 
checking,  the  elements  of  algebra,  a  well  articulated  body  of 
geometric  knowledge  concrete,  observational,  and  constructive, 
including  not  only  rules  for  areas  and  volumes  but  also  the 
simpler  properties  of  geometric  figures  and  graphic  representa- 
tions of  space.  The  actual  practice  in  Indiana  schools  does  not 
indicate  that  these  recommendations  are  receiving  much  con- 
sideration. Arithmetic  in  the  eighth  grade  and  algebra  in  the 
ninth  are  practically  universal  even  in  the  schools  claiming  junior 
high  school  organization. 

Foreign  language  is  generally  recommended  as  an  option  for 
grades  seven  and  eight  in  theory  and  this  seems  to  be  followed 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  practice,  although  in  many  schools 
the  number  permitted  to  take  this  work  is  very  limited,  and  not 
a  few  schools  still  offer  no  language  work  below  grade  nine,  pre- 
ferring to  provide  a  richer  program  in  social  and  natural  sciences 
and  prevocational  arts  as  being  fundamentally  more  valuable  as 
a  training  for  citizenship. 

The  Ettinger  plan,22  or  similar  plan,  for  short  unit  exploratory 
courses  in  the  industrial  arts  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is 
employed  in  the  schools  of  Los  Angeles,  California,  Kansas  City, 
Kansas,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  other  cities,  and  is  recommended 
by  Briggs,23  Leonard,24  Snedden25  and  others.  This  plan  provides 

"  Davis,  C.  O.     A  Survey  of  the  Secondary  Schools  of  Grand  Rapid.--,  Mich.     pp.  231-242. 

»  Briggs,  T.  H.     "Possibilities  of  the  Junior  High  School."    Ed.  37:279. 

»  Report  of  Com.  on  Reorganization  of  Education  Bui.  41,  1913,  U.  S.  Bur.  Ed. 

"  Breslich.  E.  R.     "Forward  Movements  in  Secondary  Mathematics.       Sch.  Rev.  24:283. 

21  Taylor,  E.  H.   "Course  in  Mathematics  in  the  Junior  High  School"  Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2 :460. 

22  Ettinger,  W.  L.     A  Report  on  the  Organization  and  Extension  of  Prevocational  Training 
in  Elementary  Schools.    Dept.  of  Ed.  N.  Y.  City,  1915. 

23  See  reference  18. 

2<  Leonard,  R.  J.    Report  of  the  Richmond,  Ind.,  Survey  for  Voc.  Ed.  p.  553. 

»  Snedden,  D.     Reorganization  of  Education  for  Children,  etc.    Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2 :425. 


Programs  of  Study  37 

for  participation  in  all  typical  lines  of  industrial  work,  as  wood, 
metal,  clay,  electrical,  concrete,  printing,  gardening,  and  other 
forms,  each  from  four  to  nine  weeks  rather  than  spend  an  entire 
term  or  year  in  one  field  as  is  the  usual  practice.  The  idea  is  to 
discover  interests  and  aptitudes  as  a  basis  for  guidance. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  types  of  programs  of  studies  that  are 
used  in  Indiana  reorganized  schools,  in  junior  high  school  grades, 
the  following  courses  of  study,  representing  six  city  and  twelve 
village  and  rural  high  schools  in  one  county,  are  submitted. 

TYPICAL  COURSES  OF  STUDY 

1.    Anderson,  Indiana.™ 

General  course  (vocational  and  commercial  courses  are  also 
given  in  which  the  special  work  displaces  geography-history) . 

REQUIRED  SUBJECTS  ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 

7th  GRADE 

Literature 2  periods        Latin 5  periods 

Current  events 1  period          German 5  periods 

Grammar 1  period  Cooking  or  sewing 5  periods 

Spelling  and  composition .  .  1  period  Printing 5  periods 

Arithmetic 5  periods         Commercial 5  periods 

History-civics 5  periods  (elect  one) 

Geography 5  periods 

Household    arts    or    wood 

work 1  period 

Drawing 2  periods 

Music 1  period 

Physical  training 1  period 

8th  GRADE 

English  (as  in  7th) 5  periods  Latin 5  periods 

Arithmetic  (Y2  year) 5  periods  German 5  periods 

Algebra  (^  year) 5  periods  Cooking  or  sewing 5  periods 

History-civics 5  periods  Manual  training 5  periods 

Geography  (^  year) 5  periods  Commercial  training 5  periods 

Physiology-hygiene  (]/%)  ...  5  periods  Printing 5  periods 

Household  or  manual  arts. .  2  periods  (elect  one) 

Drawing 1  period 

Music 1  period 

Physical  training 1  period 

*  Course  of  Study  for  Junior  High  Schools,  Anderson,  Ind.  1917. 


38       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

9th  GRADE 

English  literature 4  periods        Latin 5  periods 

Current  events 1  period          German 5  periods 

Algebra 5  periods         Cooking 2^  periods 

Sewing 23^  periods 

Household  chemistry 5  periods 

Wood  work 3  periods 

Mechanical  drawing 2  periods 

Mechanical  drawing 5  periods 

Botany 5  periods 

General  science 5  periods 

Ancient  history 5  periods 

Printing 5  periods 

Music 1  period 

Physical  training 1  period 

Drawing  (free  hand) 2  periods 

(elect  three) 

2.  East  Chicago,  Indiana.27 

College  preparatory  course.  (Non-college  preparatory  and 
commercial  courses  are  also  offered,  which  are  the  same  as  the 
college  preparatory  course  in  grade  seven  except  in  special  cases, 
and  which  substitute  practical  arts  for  foreign  languages  in 
grades  eight  and  nine.) 

Grade  7,  required  subjects:  arithmetic  5  periods  a  week, 
geography  (one-half  year)  5,  grammar  5,  U.  S.  history  5,  physiol- 
ogy (one-half  year)  5,  music  1J^,  drawing  2,  writing  1J^,  spelling 
(one-half  year)  2J/£,  and  gymnasium  2^.  No  electives. 

Grade  8,  required  subjects:  preparatory  mathematics  5, 
civics  (one-half  year)  5,  English  (one-half  year)  5,  Latin  or  Ger- 
man 5,  manual  training,  printing,  or  domestic  science  5,  gym- 
nasium 2J/6,  Elective  subjects:  music  1J^,  drawing  1. 

Grade  9,  required  subjects :  English  5,  algebra  (one-half  year) 
5,  geometry  (one-half  year)  5,  Latin  or  German  5,  general  science 
or  household  science  5,  Elective  subjects:  music  IJ^,  drawing  1, 
gymnasium  2J^. 

All  periods  are  60  minute  periods. 

3.  Hartford  City,  Indiana.™ 

Grade  7,  required  subjects:  English  5,  arithmetic  5,  history 
5,  geography  5,  manual  training  or  domestic  science  2,  drawing  2, 
music  2,  physical  training  2.  No  electives. 

17  Report  of  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  Indiana.  1915-16:595. 
*>  Program  of  Studies  in  the  Hartford  City  Schools.  1916. 


Programs  of  Study  39 

Grade  8,  required  subjects:  general  science  5,  English  5, 
arithmetic  (%  year)  5,  history  (%  year)  5,  manual  training  or 
domestic  science  2,  drawing  2,  music  2,  physical  training  2. 
Electives:  Latin  5,  German  5,  algebra  5. 

Grade  9,  required  subjects:  English  5,  algebra  5,  Latin  or 
German  5,  physical  training  2.  Elective  subjects:  general  science, 
general  geography,  manual  training  or  domestic  science  4, 
drawing  3,  music  3. 

4.     Richmond,  Indiana?* 

Grade  7,  required  subjects:  English  5,  arithmetic  5,  history  5, 
music  2,  drawing  2,  woodwork  or  sewing  2,  hygiene  2,  physical 
training  2.  Elective  subjects  (choose  one):  Latin  5,  German  5, 
English  composition  5,  industrial  work  (boys  and  girls)  5. 

Grade  8,  required  subjects:  geography  daily  in  8B,  civics  in 
place  of  history,  and  cooking  in  place  of  sewing,  otherwise  the 
same  as  in  grade  7,  both  required  and  elective. 

Grade  9,  required  subjects:  English  5,  physical  training  1. 
Elective  subjects:  algebra  5,  Latin  5,  German  5,  botany  5, 
physiography  5,  domestic  art  5,  domestic  science  5,  printing  5, 
bench  work  and  mechanical  drawing  5,  free-hand  drawing  2, 
chorus  practice  1,  orchestra  2^,  penmanship  (%  year)  5,  com- 
mercial arithmetic  (J/£  year)  5. 

5.  Seymour,  Indiana™ 

Grade  7,  required  subjects:  English  5,  arithmetic  5,  geog- 
raphy (^2  year)  5,  history  5,  physiology-hygiene  2,  sewing  or 
woodwork  2,  drawing  2,  music  2.  Elective  subjects:  Latin  or 
German  5,  agriculture  2. 

Grade  8,  required  subjects:  English  5,  arithmetic  (}/2  year) 
5,  algebra  (J^  year)  5,  history  (J^  year)  5,  civics  (%  year)  5, 
physiology-hygiene  2,  cooking  or  woodwork  2,  drawing  2,  music 
2.  Elective  subjects:  Latin  or  German  5,  agriculture  2. 

Grade  9,  required  subjects:  English  5,  algebra  5,  Latin  or 
German  5.  Elective  subjects:  drawing  4,  domestic  science  4, 
manual  arts  4,  agriculture  5  (double),  botany  7,  general  science 
7,  physical  geography  5,  ancient  history  5,  music  2. 

*•  Program  of  Studies  of  the  Richmond.  Ind.,  High  School.  1916. 

10  Courses  of  Study  and  Circular  of  Information  of  the  Shields  High  School,  Seymour,  Ind. 


1914. 


40      Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

6.     Tippecanoe  County,  Indiana?1 

Grade  7,  required  subjects:  English  4,  arithmetic  4,  history  4, 
geography  (J/£  year)  4,  physiology  (J/£  year)  4,  agriculture  2, 
sewing  2,  German  4,  music  1,  drawing  1.  No  electives. 

Grade  8,  required  subjects :  English  4,  arithmetic  4,  history  4, 
general  science  4,  agriculture  2,  sewing  2,  German  4,  music  1, 
drawing  1.  No  electives. 

Grade  9,  required  subjects:  English  5,  algebra  5,  German  5, 
agriculture  or  wood  work  5,  cooking  5,  music  1,  drawing  1.  No 
electives. 

All  periods  are  40  minute  periods. 

7.     Vincennes,  Indiana?2 

Grade  7,  required  subjects:  English  5,  arithmetic  5,  social 
science  (history,  geography,  nature  study)  5,  industrial  arts, 
sewing,  manual  training)  5,  music  and  physical  training  5.  No 
electives. 

Grade  8,  required  subjects:  English  5,  arithmetic  5,  history 
and  civics  5,  industrial  arts  (cooking,  printing,  manual  training) 
5,  music  and  physical  training  5.  No  electives. 

Grade  9,  required  subjects:  English  5,  algebra  5.  Elective 
subjects :  Latin  5,  German  5,  general  science  5,  cooking  or  sewing 
5,  manual  training  5,  music  and  physical  education  5. 

«  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Tippecanoe  Co.  1916-17. 

11  Course  of  Study,  Senior  and  Junior  High  Schools,  Vincennes,  Ind.  1916-17. 


Provision  for  Individual  Differences 


41 


(2)     PROVISION  FOR  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES. 

TABLE  6. 


PROVISION  FOR  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCE 


CURRICULA 

FREQUENCY 

METHOD  OF          PROGRESS 

SCHOOL 

OFFERED-I- 

OF  PROMOTION 

PROMOTION           GROUPS  f 

1 

a,  i,  d,  c 

Hyr 

subject           a&s 

2 

a 

subject            no 

3 

a 

iyrr 

subj.  in  part    a&s 

4 

a 

V£  yr. 

grade               no 

5 

a 

i  yr 

subject            no 

6 

a 

lyr. 

subject            no 

7 

a 

sub.  in  part     no 

8 
9 

a 
a 

lyr. 

subject            no 
subject            no 

10 

a,  i,  d,  c 

YL  yr. 

subject            a&s 

11 

a 

12 

a 

13 

a, 

i,d 

14 

a 

15 

a 

16 

a 

17 

a 

18 

a 

19 

a 

20 

a 

21 

a 

22 

a 

23 

a 

24 

a 

25 

a» 

i,d 

26 

a 

27 

a 

28 

a 

29 

a 

30 

a 

31 

a 

32 

a 

33 

a 

34 

a 

35 

a, 

c 

lyr. 


subject 
subject 
subject 

a&s 
a  &s 
a&s 

sub.  in  part 

no 

subject 
subject 
subject 
subject 
subject 
subject 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
a&s 

subject 

a&s 

grade 

a&s 

subject 

no 

subject 
subject 

a&s 

a&s 

subject 

no 

subject 
subject 
subject 

a&s 
a&s 
no 

subject 

a&s 

grade 

no 

subject 
subject 

no 
no 

subject 
subject 

no 
no 

PROVISION   FOR 
INDIVIDUALS* 

ex,  c,  w,  p 

none 

ex,  fr,  ir 

ex,  ir,  o,  fr,  c 

ex 

fr,  sp,  ir 

ex,  ir,  o,  fr,  p, 

c 

ex,  c 

ex,  ir,  c,  o 
ex,  ir,  w,  fr, 

p,c 
ex 
ex 

ex,  fr,  p,  v,  o 
ex,  fr 


ex,  c,  ir,  o 
ex,  min 

ex,  fr,  c 

ex 

ex,  fr,  p 

ex,  fr,  o 

ex,  ir,  p 
ex,  c 

ex,  fr,  c,  o 
ex,  fr,  c,  w,  o 


ex.c 
ex,  fr,  p 

Under  provision  for  individual  differences  are  included  those 
features  of  organization  which  attempt  to  secure  adjustment  to 
the  varying  capacities  and  subject  interests  of  pupils,  and  to 
provide  for  individual  or  homogenous  group  advancement  as 
contrasted  with  uniform  progress  by  entire  grades  or  classes. 
The  features  here  considered  are  differentiation  of  curricula, 
method  of  promotion  (by  grade  or  by  subject),  frequency  of 
promotion,  homogenous  progress  groups,  and  means  of  individual 
advancement. 

+  a,  i,  d,  c  mean  academic,  industrial.domestic  science,  and  commercial  curricula. 

1a  &  s  means  accelerant  and  slow  moving  groups. 
ex,  c,  w,  p,  fr,  o,  ir,  sp,  v,  min,  respectively,  mean  extra  subject,  coaching,  weighted  credit, 
prevocational  program,  fewer  subjects,  credit  for  outside  work,  irregular  promotion,  special 
help,  vacation  work,  minimum  requirement. 


42       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Table  6  should  be  read:  school  No.  1  offers  academic,  in- 
dustrial, domestics  arts,  and  commercial  curricula  in  the  grammar 
grades;  promotes  pupils  half  yearly;  promotes  by  subject;  has 
provision  for  rapid  and  slow  moving  groups  (as  well  as  normal) ; 
and  provides  individual  help  thru  extra  subjects,  coaching, 
weighted  credits,  and  prevocational  programs  for  special  pupils. 

Differentiation. 

Two  schools,  1  and  10,  indicate  clearly  differentiated  curricula 
in  their  published  outlines  for  the  junior  high  school.  School  13, 
Gary,  which  has  a  nation  wide  reputation  for  flexibility  in  fitting 
its  program  to  individual  needs,  should  be  credited  with  adequate 
provision  in  this  respect,  and  school  25  also  has  definite  provision 
for  each  pupil  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  to  choose  approx- 
imately one-sixth  his  work  from  foreign  languages,  or  practical 
arts,  or  a  special  course  in  English.  Several  other  schools  indicate 
three  courses  each,  academic,  household  arts,  and  manual  arts, 
but  they  appear  to  have  but  one  standard  course  for  all  pupils, 
except  that  every  girl  takes  2  periods  a  week  of  domestic  science 
and  every  boy  2  periods  of  manual  training  weekly,  which  condi- 
tion is  true  of  practically  every  school  in  the  state.  Schools  4, 
16  and  23  begin  commercial  work,  as  do  many  of  the  others,  in 
grade  nine.  All  four  of  the  schools  having  well  differentiated 
curricula  are  in  cities  of  25,000  to  50,000  population.  Five  other 
cities  are  of  the  20,000  and  more  population  class  and  could  pro- 
vide well  differentiated  curricula,  without  doubt;  five  cities  are 
between  8,000  and  12,000  population  and  could,  no  doubt,  pro- 
vide more  definite  differentiation  than  at  present  their  programs 
show;  while  four  other  cities  in  the  5,000  to  8,000  class  offer  ex- 
tensive electives  in  some  high  school  subjects,  it  would  seem 
desirable  and  quite  possible  for  them  to  increase  their  offerings 
to  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils  in  practical  arts,  especially 
as  these  grades  are  housed  with  the  high  school  in  each  case  and 
have  the  use  of  the  high  school  shops  and  laboratories.  With  the 
remaining  schools  curriculum  differentiation,  save  in  household 
arts  and  manual  training  in  limited  degree,  is  clearly  out  of  the 
question,  but  even  here  it  would  seem  possible  to  plan  a  single 
curriculum  with  some  design  as  some  of  them  have  done  and  are 
doing,  and  which  according  to  Johnston33  is  the  chief  mark  of  the 

'Johnston,  C.  H.   What  is  Curriculum  Differentiation?    Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2 :49. 


Provision  for  Individual  Differences  43 

junior  high  school.  Thru  provision  for  carrying  an  extra  subject 
in  many  of  these  schools  opportunity  is  afforded  for  a  limited 
kind  and  amount  of  differentiation.  Omitting  the  ninth  grade, 
we  may  say  that  31  of  these  35  schools  make  no  extensive  pro- 
vision for  curriculum  differentiation.  Evidently  these  schools 
are  not  realizing  in  practice  what  their  superintendents  desire 
in  theory,  for  they  rated  curriculum  differentiation  as  third  in 
importance  of  the  18  items  submitted  for  ranking. 

At  the  present  time  differentiation  constitutes  the  storm  center 
in  junior  high  school  discussion,  and  we  find  every  possible 
variation  both  in  theory  and  in  practice.  The  recommendations 
relative  to  courses  and  subjects  of  study  have  a  bearing  on  this 
point  but  the  above  mentioned  writers  and  others  have  much  to 
say  more  specifically  to  this  point. 

Johnston33  has  rendered  a  positive  service  in  helping  to  clarify 
the  meaning  of  the  term  differentiation.  He  points  out  that 
differentiated  curricula  should  include  many  of  the  same  courses 
in  common,  that  differentiation  may  be  thru  courses  for  boys  and 
for  girls,  for  fast  and  slow  moving  groups,  for  prevocational  and 
academic  groups,  and  by  having  the  same  subject  with  different 
content  adjusted  to  different  group  interests,  and  that  every  act 
of  individual  pupil  help  or  variation  in  assignment  is  differentia- 
tion. More  recently  he  writes:  "curriculum  differentiation  is 
the  crucial  issue."34 

Davis35  advises  the  organization  of  differentiated  curricula, 
some  freedom  of  choice  by  pupils  of  subject  matter  to  be  studied, 
and  differentiation  of  work  among  different  classes  in  the  same 
subject.  Again,  he  says,3^  that  this  differentiation  may  come 
(ajid  in  small  schools  it  must  come)  in  the  regular  classroom  work 
itself. 

Briggs37  says  that  differentiation  may  be  on  the  basis  of 
mental  ability,  interests,  sex,  etc.,  and  should  follow  the  decision 
of  the  pupil,  parent,  and  teacher  after  exploration  reveals  facts 
about  the  child  and  the  vocations. 

Snedden38  recommends  differentiation  on  both  psychological 
and  social  grounds,  because  of  innate  differences  in  human 
nature  and  capacities,  and  because  of  interests  of  a  specific 
vocational  kind.  He  urges  uniform  elements  for  the  education 

»<  Johnston,  C.  H.     The  Junior  High  School.  Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2:413. 

«  Davis,  C.  O.  A  Survey  of  the  Secondary  Schools  of  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  p.  230.  1916. 

18  Davis,  C.  O.  in  Johnston's  High  School  Education,  p.  97. 

87  Briggs,  T.  H.     Possibilities  of  the  Junior  High  School.  Education,  37:279. 

»  Snedden,  D.    Reorganization  of  Education  of  Children  12  to  14.  Ed.    Adm.  &  Sup.  2:425. 


44       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

of  all  where  the  purpose  is  training  for  civic  life  and  assimilation 
into  the  broader  social  group.  He  advises  partial  group  differ- 
entiation as  early  as  the  age  of  twelve,  but  he  assumes  that  no 
highly  specialized  vocational  training,  as  such,  will  be  given  in 
the  junior  high  school. 

Bagley,39  while  recommending  the  six-six  plan  as  an  adminis- 
trative device  for  securing  many  desirable  educational  reforms, 
is  opposed  to  the  junior  high  school  as  an  expression  of  marked 
differentiation.  He  argues  that  in  a  democracy  in  this  age  of 
extreme  specialization  there  is  urgent  need  for  the  development  of 
a  like-minded  social  consciousness,  or  as  he  puts  it,  a  "social 
solidarity,"  and  for  this  purpose  the  school  (up  to  the  age  of 
fourteen)  must  place  great  emphasis  on  uniform  and  common 
elements  tending  to  produce  that  end.  Bagley  protests  against 
putting  individual  interests  before  the  social,  and  fears  that 
extreme  differentiation  will  result  in  class  stratification.  He  also 
argues  that  marked  differentiation,  unless  common  in  all  schools, 
both  rural  and  urban  in  grades  seven  and  eight,  will  seriously 
handicap  pupils  moving  from  one  school  to  another.  And  he 
also  states  that  the  necessary  differentiation  to  suit  the  needs  of 
individual  differences  can  be  secured  thru  variation  in  method  in 
classroom  procedure. 

Judd40  points  out  the  marked  psychological  changes  of  early 
adolescence  and  bases  the  need  for  differentiation  on  the  demands 
of  individual  differences,  and  urges  the  abandoning  of  the  eight- 
four  plan  with  its  elementary  school  methods  for  the  upper 
two  grades  and  the  useless  repetition  of  subject  matter  of  the  old 
organization. 

Bonser41  advocates  partial  differentiation  on  the  grounds  of 
the  intrinsic  nature  of  the  child  and  his  vocational  destiny. 

The  committee  of  the  North  Central  Association42  advises 
that  no  first  course  in  the  junior  high  school  should  be  modified 
as  to  purpose  or  content  with  reference  to  any  group  of  high 
school  pupils. 

These  authorities  indicate  that  the  trend  of  educational 
opinion  has  greatly  changed  since  the  time  of  the  report  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten43  in  1893,  whose  opinion  was  quoted  in  the 
introduction  to  the  effect  that  every  subject  in  the  high  school 

»•  Bagley,  W.  C.     The  Six-Six  Plan.    School  &  Home  Ed.  34:3-5  &  79,  80. 

"Judd,  C.  H.     The  Junior  High  School.    Sch.  Rev.  24:249-260. 

«  Bonser,  F.  G.     Democratizing  Education,  etc.  Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  1 :567. 

42  Report  of  Com.  on  Definition  of  a  Unit.    Proc.  N.  C.  A.  1916. 

«  Report  of  Com.  of  Ten  of  N.  E.  A.  1893.  p.  17. 


Provision  for  Individual  Differences  45 

should  be  taught  to  every  pupil  in  the  same  way  and  to  the  same 
extent  regardless  of  his  probable  career.  The  extent  of  the  change 
of  opinion  is  realized  when  we  consider  that  the  Committee  of 
Ten  advocated  no  differentiation  in  the  senior  high  school,  much 
less  in  the  junior  high  school. 

Apparently  all  the  writers  are  agreed  that  individual  dif- 
ferences are  rather  marked  at  the  junior  high  school  age  and 
demand  some  measure  of  recognition.  They  are  also,  no  doubt, 
agreed  that  many  elements  of  common  training  are  desirable  for 
a  common  citizenship,  but  they  disagree  as  to  the  means  and  the 
amount  of  differentiation  desirable. 

The  chief  objection  to  extreme  differentiation  in  subject 
matter  seems  to  be  founded  upon  a  fear  of  industrial  exploitation. 
Dewey,44  as  well  as  Bagley,  views  this  possibility  with  concern. 

However  much  extreme  subject  differentiation  may  be  ob- 
jectionable in  theory,  neither  Douglass'  investigation  nor  my  own 
indicate  a  degree  of  differentiation  of  the  sort  that  has  assumed 
alarming  proportions.  An  option  of  a  foreign  language  4  or  5 
times  a  week  or  of  prevocational  arts  (in  Indiana  required)  2  or 
3  times  a  week  in  the  eighth  grade  seems  to  be  the  more  general 
practice  among  so-called  junior  high  schools.  It  is  to  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  majority  of  schools  in  this  study  are  of  the 
small  school  type.  Apparently  other  means  of  differentiation, 
as  fast  and  slow  moving  groups,  permission  to  carry  extra  or 
fewer  subjects,  variation  in  classroom  methods  to  suit  individual 
needs,  sex  segregation  in  prevocational  arts,  and  certain  modi- 
fications in  subject  matter  for  all  are  relied  upon  as  the  chief 
provisions  for  individual  differences.  Neither  a  wide  range  in 
options  nor  varying  rates  of  progress  by  groups  are  available  for 
the  small  school. 

But  4  of  the  35  Indiana  schools  have  any  marked  variations 
in  curricula,  and  in  no  one  of  these  has  the  pupil  an  option  of 
more  than  one-fifth  his  work  during  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades. 

Bonser45  recommends  about  two-fifths  the  time  in  the  eighth 
grade  for  optional  or  differentiated  work;  Snedden,46  that  at  least 
one-fifth  the  program  be  differentiated  or  optional ;  and  Bagley47 
argues  against  the  elective  principle  below  grade  nine.  About 

"Dewey,  J.     "A  Policy  of  Industrial  Education.   School  &  Soc.  2:11. 
«  Bonser,  F.  G.     Democratizing  Education,  etc.  Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  1 :567. 
48  Snedden,  D.     Character  &  Extent  of  Desired  Flexibility,  etc.  Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2:233. 
"  Bagley,  W.  C.     The  Six-Six  Plan.  S.  &  H.  Ed.  34:3-5  and  Justification  of   a   Certain 
Measure  of  Uniformity.    111.  Univ.  School  of  Ed.  bulletin  13, 1914:12-21. 


46       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

one-half  the  Indiana  junior  type  schools  offer  no  electives,  al- 
though in  13  of  these  the  former  program  of  studies  has  been 
radically  changed  in  grades  seven  and  eight  with  limited  options 
in  the  ninth. 

The  writer  desires  to  advance  objections  to  current  argu- 
ments for  extreme  differentiation  on  the  grounds,  first,  that  our 
psychology  of  individual  differences  indicates  that  original  nature 
is  selective  and  that  differing  natures  will  react  to  common 
stimuli  differently  and  produce  differing  individualities;48  and, 
second,  the  principal  already  advanced  by  Briggs  that  interests 
and  aptitudes  do  not  precede  experience,  should  furnish  a  basic 
principle  for  required  exploratory  courses.  While  we  must  give 
due  weight  to  environmental  influences,  it  would  seem  that  the 
principle  first  stated  should  receive  consideration.  Another 
point  much  stressed  in  the  educational  literature  on  the  junior 
high  school  is  the  variation  of  subject  matter  in  a  given  course  to 
fit  the  demands  of  different  curricula  settings.  Just  why  should 
a  boy  taking  the  general  curriculum  in  the  seventh  or  eighth 
grades  have  a  different  brand  of  civics  from  that  of  a  boy  taking 
a  commercial  or  industrial  course?  I  wonder  if  we  have  not 
dragged  a  Munich  continuation  school  idea,  properly  applicable 
to  youthful  workers  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  of  age,  who  have 
both  vocational  experience  and  vocational  interests,  into  our 
grammar  grades  and  attempted  to  apply  it  to  twelve  year-olds 
who  have  neither  vocational  experience  nor  vocational  interests 
of  any  very  definite  sort.  The  recommendation  of  the  North 
Central  Association  Committee,  already  referred  to,  that  no 
first  course  in  the  junior  high  school  should  be  varied  in  content 
for  different  curricula  groups,  seems  to  be  based  upon  sound  ped- 
agogic principles. 

In  conclusion,  all  writers  are  agreed  that  subject  matter 
modifications  and  some  degree  of  differentiation  are  indispensible 
features  of  the  junior  high  school.  In  practice,  junior  high  school 
claims  are  all  too  often  based  upon  mere  administrative  changes 
in  externals,  as  the  grouping  of  certain  grades  or  the  utilization 
of  certain  housing  facilities.  Relative  to  this  Snedden  says: 
"Proposals  for  the  junior  high  school  type  of  school  organization 
are  chiefly,  as  yet,  proposals  for  administrative  readjustments. 
I  hear  very  little  regarding  pedagogical  changes."49  Judd,  in  a 

«  Thorndike,  E.  T  .     Educational  Psychology.  Vol.  III.  pp.  305-310. 

«•  Snedden,  D.     Reorganization  of  Education,  etc.    Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2 :42S. 


Provision  for  Individual  Differences  47 

recent  summary  of  current  educational  writings,  expresses  a 
similar  opinion.  He  says :  "Nor  can  one  avoid  a  feeling  of  appre- 
hension that  the  movement  in  the  direction  of  changes  in  ad- 
ministrative form  will  outrun  the  changes  in  organization  of 
materials  and  methods  of  instruction  which  are  essential  to  the 
ultimate  success  of  the  junior  high  school."50 

Promotions. 

Of  the  35  schools,  22  have  promotion  half-yearly  and  13 
yearly.  Here  the  determining  factor  is  clearly  that  of  the  size 
of  the  school.  All  the  schools  having  yearly  promotions  are  in 
towns  of  1,600  population  or  less.  It  is  clear  that  two  sets  of 
standards  must  apply  here,  one  for  the  larger  and  another  for 
smaller  schools.  Frequency  of  promotion  is  desirable  so  that 
failed  pupils  may  not  lose  overmuch  time  in  repeating,  but  the 
small  school  with  its  smaller  classes  and  its  possibility  for  more 
intimate  contact  between  teacher  and  pupil  and  for  individual 
help  should  be  able  to  prevent  failures  in  greater  degree  and  thus 
overcome  this  objection  in  part. 

Various  investigations  indicate  that  promotion  by  subject  is 
a  well  nigh  universal  practice  with  junior  high  schools.  Without 
it  there  can  be  but  little  flexibility  in  providing  for  individual 
advancement.  Promotion  by  subject  or  by  related  groups  of 
subjects  seems  to  be  a  standard  feature  of  practice  with  Indiana 
junior  high  schools  as  well  as  of  theory.  Thirty- two  schools  in- 
dicate promotion  by  subject  in  whole  or  in  part.  Of  the  three 
reporting  promotion  by  grades,  one  is  just  inaugurating  its  re- 
formed organization  and  states  that  subject  promotion  is  to  be 
introduced  soon.  The  remaining  two  schools,  22  and  31,  having 
promotion  by  grades  are  among  the  cities  of  the  8,000  and  larger 
population  class  and  have  claimed  junior  high  school  organiza- 
tion for  several  years.  Their  practice  with  respect  to  this  stand- 
ard is  clearly  not  in  line  with  either  the  best  opinion  or  practice. 

Accelerant  and  Slow- Moving  Groups. 

Fourteen  schools  report  fast  and  slow  moving  classes  as 
definite  features  of  their  organization,  while  21  schools  say  they 
do  not  have  such  organization.  School  4  says  this  will  be  added 
next  year.  Of  the  remaining  20  schools,  not  having  such  groups, 

*°  Judd,  C.  H.    In  School  Rev.  May.  1917.  p.  375. 


48       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

17  are  in  towns  of  4,000  or  less  population  where  such  provision  is 
clearly  impracticable  on  account  of  the  limited  number  of 
class  groups  in  any  one  school  grade.  School  16  has  probably  too 
small  a  population  to  warrant  the  introduction  of  this  feature, 
but  other  schools  of  the  size  of  7  and  31  (8,000  to  12,000)  are 
using  it  successfully  which  would  appear  to  warrant  its  being 
tried  out  in  these  two  schools. 

Plans  for  Individual  Advancement. 

Eight  schools  made  no  report  to  this  part  of  the  questionnaire. 
But  one  school,  number  2,  states  that  it  has  no  provision  for 
pupil  advancement  other  than  moving  with  the  class  group. 
Twenty- four  schools  indicate  that  extra  subjects  are  available 
for  pupils  of  good  ability  in  academic  work;  13  indicate  that  some 
pupils  may  take  fewer  subjects;  13,  coaching  or  special  help; 
7,  more  prevocational  work  in  place  of  some  of  the  academic 
work;  9,  credit  for  outside  work;  8,  irregular  promotion;  3,  weight- 
ed credits;  1,  vacation  work  as  an  opportunity  to  make  up  work; 
and  1,  minimum  requirement  in  each  subject  for  certain  pupils. 
My  replies  indicate  that  more  adequate  provision  is  made  for 
the  brighter  pupils,  but  if  the  opposite  case  had  been  submitted 
as  clearly,  we  should,  no  doubt,  find  that  coaching  and  special 
help  for  slow  pupils  are  even  more  common  than  provision  for 
the  advancement  of  bright  pupils.  In  evaluating  the  standards 
of  the  school  these  factors  should  be  considered  in  connection 
with  accelerant  and  slow-moving  groups,  supervised  study,  and 
the  size  of  the  school.  Where  the  school  is  too  small  to  provide 
fast  and  slow  progress  groups,  it  is  evident  that  some  definite 
provision  should  be  made  for  supervised  study  or  other  means 
above  enumerated  for  advancing  each  pupil  with  the  greatest 
benefit  to  himself. 

To  summarize,  clearly  differentiated  curricula  is  not  a  stand- 
ard feature  of  practice  even  among  the  larger  Indiana  junior  high 
schools.  In  cities  of  2,000  or  more  population  half-yearly 
promotion  is  the  universal  practice  as  is  yearly  promotion  in 
the  smaller  communities.  Promotion  by  subject  in  whole 
or  part  is  practiced  in  nearly  every  junior  high  school,  32  of 
the  35,  and  may  be  accepted  as  a  standard.  As  every  school 
in  cities  of  10,000  or  more  population,  except  one,  has  or  is  to 
have  soon,  accelerant,  slow,  and  normal  progress  classes,  we  may 
accept  such  practice  as  standard  for  cities  of  this  class,  and  as 


Revised  Methods  49 

but  two  cities  smaller  than  this  have  such  groups,  we  may 
assume  that  this  is  not  a  reasonable  standard  for  junior  schools 
in  these  smaller  towns.  The  facts  of  table  6,  last  column,  would 
seem  to  warrant  the  expectation  that  every  school  should  provide 
one  or  more  means,  each,  for  helping  unusually  bright  or  slow 
pupils  to  make  the  best  possible  adjustments  in  school  progress  as 
means  of  adjustment  to  individual  differences. 

These  conclusions  refer  only  to  present  standards  of  practice 
in  these  35  Indiana  schools  claiming  junior  high  school  organiza- 
tion, and  may  not  be  adequate  standards  for  junior  high  schools 
generally,  as  indicated  by  their  form  of  organization  and  ad- 
ministration. Comparative  data  are  limited. 

Briggs'51  data  show  31  schools  promoting  by  subject  to  19  not 
so  promoting,  and  32  schools  promoting  half-yearly  to  13  yearly. 
Data  relative  to  other  features  named  in  table  6  are  not  avail- 
able for  comparison. 

(3)     REVISED  METHODS. 

The  two  most  prominent  factors  in  the  reorganization  move- 
ment are  the  demand  for  changes  (1)  that  shall  bring  the  pupil 
into  better  adjustment  with  the  social  demands  (economic, 
political  and  industrial)  of  his  time,  and  (2)  that  shall  give  due 
consideration  to  individual  differences  in  interests  and  capacities. 

To  realize  these  new  aims,  more  or  less  extensive  changes  are 
proposed  in  the  program  of  studies  thru  the  revision  of  the  con- 
tent of  old  subjects  and  the  introduction  of  new  ones.  But 
valuable  as  these  revisions  are,  the  desired  aims  will  not  be  realized 
unless  the  methods,  by  which  the  new  content  is  to  be  made  a 
part  of  the  pupil's  experience,  are  revised  and  adapted  to  the 
new  aims.  The  new  socialized  content  cannot  be  made  effective 
thru  the  old  drill  methods.  Method  must  conform  to  subject 
matter.  Relative  to  this  Dewey  says:  "Method  means  that 
arrangement  of  subject  matter  which  makes  it  most  effective 
in  use.  Never  is  method  something  outside  the  material." 
Again:  "The  better  methods  of  teaching  engage  his  activities." 
—"The  method  is  derived  from  observation  of  what  actually 
happens  with  a  view  to  seeing  that  it  happens  better  next  time."62 
Again,  as  touching  the  topic  of  interest,  he  says:  "The  problem 
of  instruction  is  thus  that  of  finding  material  which  will  engage 

"  Briggs,  T.  H.  "The  Junior  High  School."  Report  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.  1914.  Vol.  I. 
pp.  135-157. 

"  Dewey.  J.     Democracy  and  Education,  p.  194.  New  York,  1916. 


50       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

a  person  in  specific  activities  having  an  aim  or  purpose,  of  moment 
or  interest  to  him."53  Elsewhere54  Dewey  advocates  a  type  of 
method,  the  psychological,  based  on  the  experiences,  interests, 
and  abilities  of  the  learner  in  contrast  with  the  more  usual  and 
formal  methods  based  upon  the  logic  of  tjie  subject  matter  as 
viewed  by  the  one  who  has  mastered  it.  And  again55  he  speaks 
of  the  abuse  of  linguistic  methods  in  education 

Eliot  advocates  similar  revisions  in  content  and  methods  to 
replace  the  old  formal  program.  He  says:  "We  Americans,  like 
the  Chinese,  have  dwelt  in  our  schools  too  much  on  two  faculties — 
discrimination  between  shades  of  meaning  of  different  words  and 
phrases,  and  memory  for  words,  phrases,  narrative,  description, 
and  even  argument.  Memory  training  has  predominated  over 
training  in  observation  and  the  acquisition  of  skills."56  He 
advocates  more  acquisition  of  skill  by  pupils,  more  sense  training, 
more  contact  with  real  objects,  practice  in  the  use  of  machines, 
a  larger  place  for  laboratory  work,  wider  opportunities  for  sport, 
and  an  extension  of  the  playground  movement.  Continuing,  he 
says:  "We  must  not  imagine  that  this  better  preparation  of 
children  to  earn  their  livelihood  is  going  to  diminish  the  intel- 
lectual value  of  the  school  training." 

Other  writers  have  criticised  traditional  methods  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  grammar  grades.  Davis  says:  "Individual  tastes 
and  capacities  are  not  rightly  considered, — discipline  is  unsuited 
to  the  stage  of  development  of  the  pupils, — methods  of  in- 
struction are  unpedagogical, — there  is  not  sufficient  hand  work — 
the  whole  system  is  over-mechanized."57  Speaking  of  the 
psychology  of  the  adolescent  period,  he  says:  "Individuality 
begins  to  play  and  demands  a  larger  circle  in  which  to  assert  and 
express  itself. — To  keep  him  (the  adolescent)  under  the  re- 
strictive and  arbitrary  discipline  of  the  ordinary  elementary 
school  is  to  sin  against  nature  and  to  commit  an  offense  against 
the  laws  of  social  well-being.  To  employ  with  him  the  methods 
of  instruction  and  training  of  the  elementary  school  is  to  pro- 
voke him  to  truancy,  encourage  him  to  evade  school  work,  and 
impel  him  to  forsake  school  duties  altogether."  He  advocates 
discovery  and  development  of  individual  aptitudes,  the  sub- 


"  Dewey,  J.     ibid.  p.  155. 

•«  Dewey,  J.     How  We  Think,  ch.  v.  New  York,  1910. 

"ibid.  p.  176. 

M  Eliot,  C.  W.  The  Concrete  and  Practical  in  Modern  Education,  pp.  14-39.  Boston, 
1913. 

67  Davis,  C.  O.  Principles  and  Plans  for  Reorganizing  Secondary  Education,  in  Johnston's 
High  School  Education,  ch.  iv.  New  York,  1912. 


Revised  Methods  51 

stitution  of  useful  content  for  formal  methods,  departmental 
instruction,  a  more  vitalized  classroom  procedure,  and  self- 
activity. 

Hall,58  than  whom  no  one  has  written  more  extensively  on 
the  psychology  and  pedagogy  of  adolescence,  offers  many  sug- 
gestions relative  to  methods  of  discipline  and  instruction  during 
adolescent  years.  Pertaining  to  discipline,  he  says:  "The  period 
of  habituating  morality  and  making  it  habitual  is  ceasing;  and 
the  passion  to  realize  freedom,  to  act  on  personal  experience,  and 
to  keep  a  private  conscience  is  in  order. — The  attempt  to  treat 
a  child  at  adolescence  as  you  would  treat  an  inferior  is  instantly 
fatal  to  good  discipline — guidance  by  command  may  now  safely 
give  way  to  that  by  ideals — the  one  unpardonable  thing  for  the 
adolescent  is  dullness,  stupidity,  lack  of  life,  interest,  and  enthu- 
siasm in  school  or  teachers,  perhaps  above  all,  too  great  stringen- 
cy. Least  of  all,  at  this  stage,  can  the  curriculum  or  school  be 
an  ossuary."  He  urges  emphasis  upon  interest  rather  than  drill; 
upon  appreciation  instead  of  expression ;  upon  great  wholes  rather 
than  upon  over-accuracy  and  'morselization';  upon  more  oral 
and  objective  work.  He  denounces  the  excessive  amount  of 
writing  demanded  of  pupils,  and  characterizes  the  daily  theme 
as  an  'infection'.  Speaking  of  the  pubescent  reading  passion, 
he  says:  "It  is  the  age  of  skipping  and  sampling,  of  pressing  the 
keys  lightly." 

Snedden59  advocates  a  change  from  the  traditional  methods 
of  drill  and  memory  and  formal  analysis,  by  which  external  bits 
of  information  are  acquired,  to  natural  methods,  based  on  the 
nature  of  the  learning  process.  He  would  have  methods  grow 
out  of  educational  experimentation  in  all  the  varied  school 
activities.  He  advocates  that  methods  be  in  keeping  with  the 
new  and  variable  types  of  subject  matter  to  be  introduced  into 
the  junior  high  school,  methods  capable  of  adaptation  to  in- 
dividual differences,  methods  that  shall  reveal  to  the  pupil  his 
capacities  and  develop  power  in  expression,  departmental  teach- 
ing or  the  Gary  plan  of  allied  groups,  short  unit  courses  in  the 
practical  arts  with  the  project  method.  He  states  that  the  work 
of  these  years  (12  to  15)  has  too  much  of  repetition  and  memory 
drills,  and  lacks  vitality. 

68  Hall,  G.  S.    Youth,  Its  Education,  Regimen,  and  Hygiene,  ch.  9,  10.    New  York,  1907. 

69  Snedden,  D.     Problems  of  Educational  Readjustment,  ch.  2,  5,  6.    Boston,  1913. 


52       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Definite  suggestions  relative  to  reorganized  content  and 
methods  in  English,60  community  civics,61  and  the  social  sciences62 
have  been  recently  published  by  the  Commission  on  the  Reor- 
ganization of  Secondary  Education  in  a  series  of  bulletins  issued 
by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  Social  motive  and 
pupil  activity  receive  marked  emphasis. 

The  project  method  has  been  strongly  advocated  for  practical 
arts,  and  more  recently  for  elementary  science  in  the  junior  high 
school,  and  its  principles  are  being  utilized  in  increasing  degree 
even  in  such  subjects  as  history  and  literature. 

Concerning  this  method  the  Committee  on  General  Science 
of  the  National  Education  Association  says:  "The  most  effective 
method  of  science  teaching  yet  devised,  in  which  all  three  ele- 
ments of  the  scientific  spirit  receive  due  recognition,  is  called  the 
method  of  teaching  by  projects. — Every  project  is  characterized 
by  three  equally  important  elements  of  the  scientific  spirit; 
namely,  (1)  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  to  understand  better 
the  meaning  and  use  of  some  fact,  phenomenon,  or  experience. 
This  leads  the  pupil  to  ask  questions.  (2)  A  firm  faith  that  it  is 
worth  while  and  possible  to  secure  a  better  understanding  of  the 
thing  in  question.  This  causes  the  pupil  to  go  to  work  with 
enthusiasm.  (3)  The  gathering  from  experience,  books,  and 
experiments  of  the  needed  information,  and  the  application  of 
this  information  to  answer  the  question  in  hand.  This  settles 
the  question  temporarily  at  least."63 

Relative  to  this  method  Twiss  says :  '  The  method  of  starting 
a  project  or  problem  and  giving  the  pupils  time  to  think  and 
study  on  it,  and  to  work  it  out  for  themselves  with  the  assistance 
of  the  teacher  and  their  classmates,  puts  them  in  a  position 
where  they  have  a  strong  immediate  motive  for  getting  all  the 
information  they  can  that  bears  on  the  solution  of  the  problem  or 
the  accomplishment  of  the  project."64 

These  points  of  view  of  method  in  instruction  indicate  the 
need  of  marked  changes  from  the  traditional  procedure  and 
imply  conditions  that  ideally  should  obtain  in  laboratory,  shop, 
excursion,  individual  and  home  projects,  sports  and  athletics 
and  supervised  study  procedure,  which  types  of  method  are 
commonly  being  advocated  for  the  junior  high  school.  This  is 

«o  Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools.  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Ed.  Bui.  2,  1917. 

"  Teaching  of  Community  Civics.  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Ed.  Bui.  23,  1915. 

«2  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Ed.  Bui.  28,  1916. 

«  Preliminary  Report  of  Com.  on  General  Science  of  N.  E.  A.  1916. 

M  Twiss,  G.  R.     Science  Teaching,  ch.  23.    New  York.  1917. 


Revised  Methods  53 

quite  in  opposition  to  the  disciplinary  conception,  the  result  of 
which  Dewey  characterizes  by  a  quotation:  "It  makes  no 
difference  what  you  teach  a  boy  so  long  as  he  doesn't  like  it"; 
or  to  the  view  as  formulated  by  the  Committee  of  Ten,65  that 
subjects  of  study  are  of  equal  educational  value  if  they  are 
thoroughly  taught,  which  statement  seems  to  imply  that  method 
is  the  prime  factor  and  separate  from  subject  matter. 

Modification  of  methods  was  ranked  as  third  in  importance  of 
the  seven  group  factors  in  reorganization  by  Indiana  superin- 
tendents. 

The  determination  of  methods  of  instruction  and  discipline 
in  the  junior  high  school,  as  contrasted  with  other  school  units, 
constitutes  an  important  problem  in  the  reorganization  move- 
ment. 

A  limited  number  of  inquiries,  sent  to  certain  schools  relative 
to  the  organization  of  important  subjects  in  the  program  and 
details  of  teaching  method,  failed  to  secure  responses  that  would 
have  value  in  an  analytical  treatment,  and  as  the  writer  was 
unable,  personally  to  visit  any  large  number  of  the  schools 
investigated  during  the  period  of  investigation,  direct  observa- 
tion and  record  of  methods  were  impossible.  In  the  absence, 
then,  of  these  direct  evidences  of  revised  methods,  certain  in- 
direct evidences  have  been  selected  which,  in  a  measure,  are 
indicative  of  the  nature  of  methods  of  organization,  teaching, 
and  study  procedure. 

One  of  the  chief  arguments  for  grammar  grade  reorganization, 
advanced  by  some  has  been  to  introduce  high  school  methods 
earlier  into  our  schools.  Departmentalized  instruction  has  been 
defended  largely  on  the  ground  that  it  meets  this  need.  The 
degree,  then,  to  which  departmental  instruction  has  been  em- 
ployed should  be  indicative  of  the  break  with  the  traditional 
elementary  school  procedure  of  one  teacher  for  a  class  for  all 
subjects. 

If  high  school  methods  of  organization,  instruction,  and  dis- 
cipline, or  methods  more  nearly  approximating  the  high  school 
type  are  desired,  as  many  writers  on  the  six-six  plan  advocate, 
then  we  may  expect  that  the  employment  of  teachers  with  high 
school  teaching  experience,  especially  if  they  are  also  teaching 
some  high  school  classes  at  the  same  time,  will  favor  the  introduc- 
tion of  high  school  methods  in  these  grammar  grades. 

•  Report  of  the  Com.  of  Ten  on  Sec.  Ed.  1893.  p.  53. 


54       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Supervised  study  is  an  important  means  for  securing  more 
attention  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  pupil  as  contrasted  with 
mass  instruction  and  should  lead  to  improved  teaching  methods. 
That  it  has  not  accomplished  all  that  is  hoped  or  claimed  for  it 
goes  without  saying,  but  its  introduction  is  indicative  of  desire 
to  improve  thru  experimentation. 

The  use  of  the  individual  project  plan  in  prevocational  sub- 
jects has  been  singled  out  as  a  fourth  index  of  revised  methodology 
This  plan,  while  often  advocated  for  all  natural  and  social  sciences 
has  not  generally  been  employed  in  the  older  subjects  of  the 
course  of  study,  and  hence  I  have  confined  my  inquiry  to  its  use 
in  the  practical  arts  subjects,  where  it  is  coming  into  most  ex- 
tensive use.  The  employment  of  this  method  in  this  line  of 
work  is  strongly  advocated  by  the  Indiana  State  Department  of 
Public  Instruction66  and  by  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Education.67 

Table  7  sets  forth  certain  factors  that  are  more  or  less  indica- 
tive of  method  modifications.  The  table  should  be  read :  in  school 
1,  66.7%  of  junior  high  school  teachers  teach  one  subject  only; 
16.7%,  2  subjects;  16.6%,  3  or  more  subjects;  no  report  was 
made  as  to  the  number  of  teachers  per  pupil  in  grades  seven  and 
eight;  30  minutes  of  each  class  period  (60  minutes  in  this  school) 
are  devoted  to  supervised  study  in  each  study  subject;  the  pro- 
ject method  is  used  in  prevocational  work;  a  part  of  the  junior 
high  school  vocational  work  is  taught  by  senior  high  school 
teachers;  and  75%  of  all  junior  high  school  teachers  have  had 
high  school  teaching  experience. 

w  Uniform  Course  of  Study  for  the  Elem.  Schools  of  Ind.  1915-16.  pp.  228,238. 
«  "Agricultural  Project  Study."    "Project  Study  Outlines  for  Vegetable  Growing."    (Bul- 
letins of  the  Mass.  State  Board  of  Ed.) 


Revised  Methods 


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56       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Direct  replies  from  superintendents  and  an  inspection  of 
schedules  of  school  work  provide  the  data  as  to  the  degree  of 
departmentalization  in  22  of  these  schools.  Thru  visitation  and 
conferences  with  teachers  the  writer  is  familiar  with  the  practice 
in  schools  3,  11,  12,  13,  20,  22,  24,  30  and  31,  in  each  of  which 
the  distribution  is  not  far  from  75%  teaching  1  subject;  20%, 

2  subjects ;  and  5%,  3  subjects  or  more.    The  4  remaining  schools, 
8,  17,  18,  34,  are  of  the  same  approximate  size,  number  of  teach- 
ers, and  plan  of  organization  as  schools  2,  5,  15,  19,  29  and  32. 
They  are  all  under  the  direction  of  the  same  county  superinten- 
dent and  aim  to  carry  out  departmentalization  as  far  as  a  staff 
of  4  or  5  teachers  will  permit  in  grades  7  to  12.    Approximately 
50%  of  these  teachers  will  be  found  to  teach  2  subjects  and  50% 

3  or  more  subjects. 

In  approximately  18  of  the  35  schools  60%  or  more  of  the 
teachers  teach  but  1  subject  or  field  of  work;  in  1,  45.5%;  and  in 
3,  between  12.5%  and  24%.  It  is  probable  that  in  7  schools  50% 
of  the  teachers  teach  2  or  more  different  subjects  or  lines  of  work; 
and  that  in  9  schools  50%  or  more  of  the  teachers  teach  3  or 
more  subjects.  In  all  cities  of  5,000  or  more  population,  save 
one,  60%  or  more  of  the  teachers  teach  1  subject  only,  while  in 
the  smaller  schools  the  numbers  are  about  equally  divided  be- 
tween the  teachers  having  2  and  those  having  3  or  more  subjects. 

The  questionnaire  form  calls  for  data  relative  to  the  number 
of  different  teachers  a  normal  pupil  has  in  any  one  term  in  grades 
6,  7,  8,  and  9.  The  tabulated  replies  show  the  following  results: 
grade  6 — 6  schools  1  teacher;  2,  2  teachers;  2,  3  teachers;  2,  4 
teachers;  2,  5  teachers;  3,  6  teachers;  1,  9  teachers;  and  a  median 
of  3  teachers.  Grade  7 — 1  school  2  teacher;  1,  3  teachers;  4 
5  teachers;  8,  6  teachers;  2,  7  teachers;  1,  8  teachers;  1,  9  teachers, 
and  a  median  of  6  teachers.  Grade  8 — 1  school  3  teachers;  2,  4 
teachers;  7,  5  teachers;  4,  6  teachers;  3,  7  teachers;  1,  9  teachers; 
and  a  median  of  5  teachers.  Grade  9 — 7  schools  4  teachers;  6,  5 
teachers;  2,  6  teachers;  1,  7  teachers;  and  a  median  of  5  teachers. 
Reports  from  the  1 1  rural  high  schools  not  reporting  would  probably 
lower  the  median  result  for  grade  seven  by  one  teacher.  These 
11  schools  have  the  same  teachers  for  grades  7  to  12  and  the  same 
degree  of  departmental  teaching  in  all  these  grades,  namely,  4  or 
5  teachers  per  pupil.  The  above  results  indicate  that  the  degree 
of  departmentalization  in  grades  seven  and  eight  is  as  complete 
as  in  grade  nine,  and  that  in  the  seventh  grade  the  pupil  has  to 
adjust  himself  to  more  teachers  than  in  higher  grades. 


Revised  Methods  57 

Briggs  is  of  the  opinion  that  complete  departmentalization 
is  not  so  desirable  as  partial  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 
"One  principle  to  be  observed,"  he  says,  "provides  that  the  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  teachers  for  each  child  shall  be  gradual."68 

A  committee  of  the  High  School  Masters'  Club  of  Massachu- 
setts says:  "it  (departmental  teaching)  makes  for  thoroughness 
and  accuracy  of  scholarship  and  better  methods  of  teaching. — 
There  are  some  dangers  in  early  departmental  instruction,  but 
these  do  not  seem  to  be  insuperable,  and  they  are  far  outweighed 
by  the  advantages,  especially  when  such  instruction  is  intro- 
duced gradually.  The  practice  of  some  junior  high  schools  of 
having  two  teachers  in  the  seventh  grade  and  three  in  the  eighth 
and  full  departmental  instruction  in  the  ninth  has  much  to 
commend  it."69  And  later,  "It  is  of  vital  importance  that  the 
methods  of  the  high  school  shall  not  be  thrust  upon  the  junior 
high  school.  It  is  equally  important  that  the  methods  of  the 
lower  grades  shall  not  be  continued.  A  wise  compromise  between 
the  two  methods  of  teaching  must  be  sought." 

It  is  apparent  that  an  abrupt  change  from  one  to  too  many 
teachers  may  be  more  unfortunate  for  the  child  than  a  longer 
continuance  of  elementary  practice,  especially  in  view  of  his 
immaturity.  Our  aim  should  be  gradual  transition  to  many 
personalities  rather  than  abrupt,  for  if  abrupt  transition  between 
the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  is  undesirable,  certainly  it  will  be 
more  so  between  the  sixth  and  seventh.  Every  one  of  the  35 
schools  has,  at  least,  partial  departmentalization  of  work  for  all 
teachers,  varying  from  one  subject  per  teacher  to  four  in  two 
schools,  and  from  two  teachers  for  each  seventh  grade  pupil  in 
one  school  to  nine  in  another. 

Our  inquiry  called  for  information  relative  to  the  use  of  the 
same  teachers  in  junior  and  senior  high  school  grades,  and  the 
subjects  which  these  common  teachers  teach.  In  17  of  the  35 
schools  all  subjects  in  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools  are 
taught  by  the  same  teachers;  prevocational  and  some  academic 
subjects  are  taught  by  the  same  teachers  in  13  other  junior  and 
senior  high  schools;  all  or  part  of  the  special  subjects  in  junior 
and  senior  high  schools  are  taught  by  the  same  teachers  in  3 
schools;  and  in  2  schools  no  subjects  in  junior  and  senior  high 
school  have  common  teachers.  It  appears  that  in  30  of  these 

"  Briggs,  T.  H.     'The  Junior  High  School"    Rep.  U.  S.  Com.  Ed.  1914.  Vol.  I.  p.  138. 
"  Report  of  Com.  of  H.  S.  Masters'  Club  of  Mass.  pp.  15,  37.  1917. 


58       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

schools  the  greater  part  of  junior  high  school  teaching  is  done  by 
those  who  also  teach  in  the  senior  high  school.  This  practice 
should  have  a  marked  influence  in  introducing  high  school 
methods.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  these  schools  elementary 
school  teachers  are  not  teaching  in  high  school  for  the  purpose  of 
economy  by  the  school  authorities,  but  only  those  may  teach  in 
high  school  who  have  a  high  school  license. 

Closely  related  to  the  practice  just  discussed  is  that  of  the 
relative  number  of  junior  high  school  teachers  who  have  had 
high  school  teaching  experience.  In  17  of  these  schools  all 
teachers  have  had  high  school  teaching  experience;  in  4  more, 
75%  or  more  have  had  such  experience;  in  4,  50%  or  more;  in 
5,  25%  or  more;  in  3,  less  than  25%;  and  in  2  there  was  no 
reply  to  the  inquiry.  The  median  is  100%,  which  means  that 
in  17  of  these  schools  100%  of  the  teachers  have  had  high  school 
teaching  experience,  and  that  in  16  less  than  100%  have  had  such 
experience.  The  average  number  is  75.5%. 

Our  inquiry  asked,  "Do  you  have  supervised  study  other 
than  in  the  assembly  room?"  The  number  of  minutes  per  day 
was  also  called  for.  Thirty-one  schools  indicate  that  definite 
time  is  given  to  supervised  study  in  the  grammar  grades.  Four 
say  "none,"  but  one  of  these  has  carefully  planned  study  super- 
vision in  the  general  assembly  hall.  Eighteen  have  approxi- 
mately 15  minutes  of  directed  study  daily  for  each  study  subject; 
11,  25  to  30  minutes;  2  merely  answer  "yes."  Schools  indicating 
15  minute  study  periods  have  a  class  schedule  calling  for  40 
minute  periods,  and  those  having  25  to  30  minute  study  periods 
have  50  to  60  minute  class  periods.  Two  of  the  schools  answering 
"yes"  and  one  saying  "no"  indicate  30  minute  class  periods. 

Relative  to  the  use  of  the  project  plan  in  prevocational  work, 
4  schools  made  no  report;  8  answered  "no";  20,  "yes";  and  3 
"in  part."  While  new  subject  types  may  not  always  be  accom- 
panied by  a  change  of  methods,  the  presence  of  manual  and 
domestic  arts,  agriculture,  commercial  work,  general  science, 
and  community  civics  may  reasonably  be  taken  as  indices  of 
new  aims  and  new  methods. 

To  summarize,  every  school  indicates  departmentalized 
organization  in  high  or  moderate  degree,  for  the  most  part  under 
conditions  that  closely  approximate  regular  high  school  procedure. 
This  is  in  agreement  with  the  general  practice  among  reorgan- 
ized schools,  which  makes  departmental  organization  a  pre- 


Revised  Methods  59 

requisite  for  realizing  the  other  benefits  hoped  for  thru  the 
reorganization  movement.  Both  the  Briggs'  and  Douglass' 
reports,  previously  referred  to,  show  that  nearly  all  so-called 
junior  high  schools  have  adopted  departmental  teaching. 

Supervised  study  is  so  nearly  universal  in  these  schools  (31  of 
35)  that  it  may  be  considered  a  standard  feature  in  Indiana 
reorganized  schools.  This  practice  is  in  keeping  with  the  recent 
trend  in  educational  writings  respecting  junior  high  school 
organization  as  affording  a  basis  for  adapting  instruction  to 
individuals  and  for  experimentation.  It  is  recommended  by 
Johnston,  Briggs,  Wood,  Davis,  and  others.  Lewis70 gives  it  as 
one  of  the  ten  standards  for  the  junior  high  school. 

The  use  of  the  project  method  in  prevocational  work  is  not 
so  general  as  the  features  just  enumerated.  About  two- thirds 
of  these  schools  use  this  method  in  their  grammar  grades,  the 
remaining  probably  do  not.  Some  of  those  not  employing  this 
method  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  indicate  that  they  do 
in  the  ninth. 

A  wide  use  of  teachers  with  high  school  teaching  experience 
seems  to  be  the  standard  practice  in  Indiana  junior  high  schools. 
This  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  majority  of 
these  schools  are  in  rural  and  village  communities  where  complete 
fusion  of  the  upper  six  grades  is  desirable  from  the  teaching  and 
economic  points  of  view.  However,  some  of  the  larger  schools 
have  their  juniors  in  the  same  buildings  as  their  senior  high  school 
pupils  and  utilize  the  same  teaching  staff,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
for  both. 

In  reply  to  a  recent  questionnaire  by  Dr.  Briggs,  out  of  15 
Indiana  junior  high  schools  replying,  12  stated  that  the  problem 
of  discipline  was  easier  under  the  new  organization,  2,  the  same, 
and  1 ,  harder. 

The  prevailing  practice  with  respect  to  the  foregoing  factors 
indicates  that  Indiana  junior  high  schools  are  probably  realizing 
in  considerable  degree  a  change  to  high  school  methods  and  to 
greater  freedom  in  individual  choice  and  action  which  it  implies. 

7°  Lewis,  E.  E.     Standards  for  Measuring  Junior  High  Schools.    Univ.  of  la.  Extension 
bulletin,  Nov.  1916. 


60       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

(4)    PROVISION  FOR  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION,  EXPLORATION,  AND 
GUIDANCE  OTHER  THAN  SUBJECT  AND  CURRICULUM  CHANGES 

Aside  from  the  opportunity  for  exploration  of  pupils'  interests 
and  capacities  thru  contact  with  an  enriched  curriculum,  there 
are  other  exploratory  and  stimulating  forces  which  may  be  and 
are  commonly  used.  These  are  largely  of  the  extra  classroom 
variety  and  are  all  the  more  valuable  because  removed  from  class- 
room restraint  and  permit  a  freer  and  more  spontaneous  contact 
between  pupil  and  teacher.  The  activities  or  means  especially 
selected  for  comparison  are  those  frequently  found  and  generally 
advocated  by  schools  of  the  reorganized  type,  and  include 
definitely  responsible  pupil  advisory  systems,  educational  and 
vocational  guidance,  extra-classroom  social  organizations  of 
pupils,  and  school  assemblies. 

One  of  the  objections  to  the  departmental  system  of  teaching 
in  grammar  grades  is  that  the  immature  pupil  becomes  lost  and 
bewildered  with  his  many  subjects  and  many  teachers,  especially 
when  it  is  no  one's  business  to  be  responsible  for  him  in  the  way 
of  co-ordinating  the  forces  operating  upon  him.  Departmental 
teachers  tend  to  become  over-interested  in  subject  matter,  and 
because  of  the  large  numbers  of  pupils  who  recite  to  each  daily, 
the  individual  pupil  is  often  lost  sight  of,  fails  in  his  work,  be- 
comes a  repeater,  loses  interest  in  school  and  school  work,  and 
seeks  the  earliest  opportunity  to  drop  out  of  school.  Under  the 
one  teacher  plan,  while  much  of  the  instruction  may  have  been 
of  mediocre  quality,  at  least  the  teacher  was  in  position  to  know 
the  pupil  personally,  to  be  acquainted  with  his  strong  and  weak 
points,  to  be  able  to  advise  him  for  his  best  interests,  and  to 
stimulate  him  to  renewed  effort. 

Many  school  systems  that  have  employed  departmental 
teaching  in  the  grammar  grades  most  successfully  have  adopted 
some  teacher  advisory  plan  whereby  a  given  teacher  is  responsible 
for  a  given  group  or  class  of  pupils,  usually  from  fifteen  to  thirty. 
It  is  the  duty  of  such  a  teacher  adviser  to  keep  in  touch  with  the 
work  of  each  pupil  in  her  group,  not  only  as  pertains  to  her  own 
subject  but  in  each  of  his  subjects  with  all  his  teachers,  to  learn 
his  strong  and  weak  points,  his  interests  and  dislikes,  his  home 
and  other  environing  conditions,  that  the  best  personal  and  edu- 
cational and  vocational  advice  may  be  given  the  child  for  his 
development. 


Social  Organization  and  Guidance  61 

N.  C.  Hieronisus,71  principal  of  the  Richmond,  Indiana, 
junior  high  school,  has  recently  published  an  account  of  the  advis- 
ory system  employed  in  his  school,  which  is  substantially  as  follows : 
Each  teacher  is  assigned  a  group  of  pupils,  not  all  from  the  same 
class  but  from  various  classes  and  grades,  each  of  whom  stays 
with  this  teacher  during  his  (the  pupirs)  stay  in  the  junior  high 
school  so  far  as  pertains  to  the  advisory  system.  The  adviser 
keeps  in  touch  with  the  school  and  outside  interests  of  each 
pupil,  and  with  the  work  of  each  pupil.  Hieronimus  favors  this 
plan  because  it  provides  a  longer  and  continuous  acquaintance 
with  each  pupil,  permits  sex  segregation,  and  throws  older  and 
younger  pupils  together,  and  makes  for  solidarity. 

Another  important  factor  in  the  exploration  of  interests  and 
capacities  is  that  of  extra-classroom  organizations.  Such  ac- 
tivities are  favored  for  the  cooperation  and  the  initiative  they  bring 
out  and  for  their  value  in  developing  recreational  and  avocational 
interests. 

Weatherwax72  indicates  an  apparently  close  relationship 
between  the  number  of  extra-classroom  organizations  and  the 
per  cent  the  high  school  enrollments  are  of  the  total  population 
in  cities  of  comparative  size.  Considering  median  results  by 
schools  for  per  cent  of  enrollments  and  the  ratio  of  enrollments  to 
number  of  clubs  per  school  we  have;  for  cities  having  500  or 
more  high  school  enrollments  (7  in  all),  the  three  having  the 
highest  per  cent  of  the  population  enrolled  (median  2.4%)  have 
an  average  of  31.3  pupils  per  club,  and  the  three  having  the 
lowest  per  cent  enrollments  (median  1.4%)  have  an  average  of 
50.1  pupils  for  every  club  in  the  school.  In  schools  having  from 
150  to  499  pupils  enrolled  (26  in  all)  the  data  for  the  five  each 
having  the  highest  and  lowest  per  cent  of  enrollments  are  re- 
spectively, 7.1%  and  13.8  pupils  per  club,  and  2.3%  and  24.5 
pupils  per  club.  For  schools  having  less  than  150  enrollments 
(78  in  all)  the  data  for  the  eleven  each  having  the  highest  and 
lowest  per  cent  are,  12.7%  and  15  pupils  per  club,  and  3.1% 
and  15.8  pupils  per  club.  For  schools  of  the  first  two  groups, 
where  clubs  are  most  numerous,  the  relationship  between  the  per 
cent  of  enrollments  and  the  number  of  clubs  is  high,  but  in  the 
smaller  schools  it  is  not  so  apparent.  Of  course  other  factors 
enter  into  the  above  situation,  but  the  informal  social  life  of  the 

71  Hieronimus,  N.  C.     "The  Teacher  Adviser  in  the  Junior  High  School"    Ed.  Adm.  & 
Sup.  3:91. 

72  Weatherwax,  L.  E.     A  Study  of  Extra-classroom  Activities  in  Indiana  High  Schools. 
Master's  thesis,  Ind.  University.  1916. 


62     Reorganization  Measure  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

school  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  add  a  sense  of  worth-while- 
ness  to  school  activities,  which  results  in  greater  enrollments. 

Relative  to  the  value  of  these  social  organizations  Davis  says : 
"The  employer  who  asks  for  a  recommendation  cares  very  little 
whether  the  pupil's  standing  in  history  is  85%  or  91%.  What  he 
usually  asks  is  "What  kind  of  a  boy  is  he?"  Has  he  initiative, 
energy,  push?  Can  he  work  harmoniously  with  others  and  can 
he  lead?  Is  he  socially  efficient?"73  Continuing  he  says:  "The 
social  spirit  of  the  age  is  reflected  in  the  student  life  and  it  has 
introduced  new  problems  that  schoolmen  are  called  upon  to  solve. 
This  obligation  can  no  longer  be  ignored  nor  wilfully  pushed  aside. 
It  must  be  faced  squarely  as  an  educational  question." 

Another  means  of  exploring  and  directing  social,  educational, 
and  vocational  interests  is  that  of  the  school  assembly,  not  the 
chorus  type  of  assembly  only,  but  a  period  in  which  varied  ac- 
tivities and  interests  are  represented,  and  in  which  pupils  have  a 
very  considerable  share  in  participation,  The  daily  auditorium 
period  of  the  Gary  type  school  represents  the  most  effective 
means  the  writer  has  seen  for  developing  social  efficiency,  pro- 
viding motivation  for  school  work,  and  imparting  vocational 
information.  The  auditorium  activities  of  the  Gary  schools  and 
the  values  resulting  therefrom  have  been  well  set  forth  by 
Bourne74  in  his  analysis  of  the  Gary  system. 

Much  of  the  value  of  the  school  assembly  depends  upon  the 
relation  of  the  assembly  activities  to  the  pupil's  present  needs 
and  interests  and  upon  the  extent  of  his  participation  in  those 
activities. 

Vocational  guidance  is  a  matter  which  is  receiving  increasing 
emphasis  in  the  industrial  world,  in  the  home,  and  in  the  school. 
The  choice  of  a  life  career  is,  perhaps,  the  most  momentous  issue 
the  youth  has  to  decide,  and  about  this  center  many  of  his  most 
powerful  interests. 

The  Committee  on  Social  Studies  says  in  its  report:  "The 
question  of  vocational  guidance  is  very  much  in  the  foreground 
at  present.  While  there  is  general  agreement  that  the  young  need 
guidance  for  the  vocational  aspects  of  life,  as  for  its  other  aspects, 
there  is  wide  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  the  nature  of  this 
guidance  and  the  means  by  which  it  may  best  be  given."75  And 
again,  "Much  of  the  mortality  that  occurs  during  the  eighth  and 

»  Davis,  J.  B.     In  Johnston's  Modern  High  School,  pp.  427,  428.    New  York,  1914. 

74  Bourne,  R.  S.     The  Gary  Schools,    pp.  50,  92.    Boston,  1916. 

74  Dunn,  A.  W.     The  Social  Studies.    Bui.  28,  1916.  U.  S.  Bur.  Ed.  pp.  26,  27. 


Social  Organization  and  Guidance  63 

ninth  years  is  due  to  the  failure  of  pupils  and  parents  to  see  the 
economic  value  of  the  high  school  course.  An  opportunity  exists 
to  make  high  school  education  seem  'worth  while'  by  taking  the 
budding  vocational  or  economic  interest  as  one  point  of  depart- 
ure." 


DATA    RELATIVE   TO   GUIDANCE,   SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION,   AND   ASSEMBLY. 

No.  of  School 

1.  Definite   advisory   organization.      Educational    guidance    thru    careful 

analysis  and  record  of  pupil  traits,  parent  conferences,  and  public 
parent  meetings.  Athletic,  musical,  debating,  literary,  publication, 
and  boy  scout  organizations.  One  assembly  weekly  with  pupil  partici- 
pation in  music. 

2.  No  report  relative  to  advisory  system,  guidance  or  assembly.    No  social 

organizations. 

3.  Incidental  teacher  advice.     No  definite  educational  or  vocational  guid- 

ance.   Athletic  and  musical  organizations.    One  assembly  weekly. 

4.  Definite  advisory  system,  with  definite  record  of  pupil  characteristics  and 

report  to  the  principal  of  the  senior  high  school  to  guide  in  the  selection 
of  high  school  courses.  Athletic,  literary,  musical,  publication 
and  scouting  organizations.  One  assembly  weekly  with  25%  pupil 
participation. 

5.  No  data  on  advisory  system  or  guidance.    Athletic  organizations.    One 

weekly  assembly  with  no  pupil  participation. 

6.  No  data. 

7.  Definite  advisory  system  and  card  record.     No  definite  guidance.     De- 

partmental and  musical  organizations.  One  weekly  assembly  with  a 
small  amount  of  pupil  participation. 

8.  No  data  relative  to  advice,  guidance,  or  assembly.     Athletic  organiza- 

tions. 

9.  Definite  teacher  advisory  system.     No  vocational  guidance.     Athletic, 

musical,  and  student  government  organizations.  Two  assemblies  a 
week  with  very  little  pupil  participation. 

10.  Room  teacher  system.     No  definite  guidance.    Athletic,  civic,  literary, 

musical,  publication,  and  scouting  organizations.  Two  assemblies 
monthly  with  50%  pupil  participation. 

11.  No  advisory  system  now  but  will  have.     Definite  provision  for  educa- 

tional and  vocational  guidance  thru  the  English  department  by  the 
Grand  Rapids  plan.  Athletic  and  musical  organizations.  No  report 
on  assembly. 

12.  No  advisory  system.     No  plan  of   guidance.     Departmental,    musical, 

and  publication  organizations.  Assemblies  at  the  call  of  the  principal, 
with  an  average  of  1  a  week  with  but  little  pupil  participation. 

13.  Definite  teacher  advisory  system.    Vocational  guidance  thru  auditorium 

work.  Athletic,  civic,  musical,  and  student  government  organizations. 
Daily  auditorium  period  for  each  pupil  with  much  pupil  participation. 


64       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

14.  Definite  advisory  system.     No  systematic  vocational  guidance.      No 

report  on  social  organizations.     One  assembly  weekly  with  nearly  all 
pupil  participation. 

15.  No  report  on  advice,  guidance,  or  assemblies.    Athletic  organization. 

16.  No  systematic  advisory  system  or  guidance.    Athletic  and  musical  organ- 

zations.    Two  assemblies  weekly  with  50%  pupil  participation. 

17.  No  report. 

18.  No  report. 

19.  Definite  advisory  plan.     No  report  on  guidance.    Athletic  organization. 

One  assembly  weekly. 

20.  Definite  advisory  plan.     No  report  on  guidance.    Athletic  organization. 

One  weekly  assembly. 

21.  Definite  teacher  adviser.     Educational  and  vocational  guidance  thru 

study  of  local  needs  and  parent  conferences.     Athletic  and  musical 
organizations.     Daily  assemblies  with  50%  pupil  participation. 

22.  Reports  "yes"  on  adviser,  and  has  vocational  guidance  thru  manual  arts. 

No  social  organizations  below  grade  nine.    No  report  on  assemblies. 

23.  Advisory  system,  but  no  systematic  plan  of  educational  or  vocational 

guidance.     Athletic,    debating,    musical,   publication,  and  scouting 
organizations.    One  weekly  assembly. 

24.  Advisory  system.    Talks  by  the  superintendent  and  parent  conferences 

for  educational  guidance.     Athletic,  literary,  and  musical  organiza- 
tions.   No  report  on  assemblies. 

25.  Very  definite  advisory  system.    No  definite  plan  for  guidance.    Athletic, 

civic,  literary,  musical,  publication,  and  student  government  organi- 
zations.   One  weekly  assembly  with  some  pupil  participation. 

26.  Teachers  act  as  advisers.     No  guidance  plan  indicated.     No  report  on 

social  organizations.     Two  assemblies  monthly  with  10%  pupil  partici- 
pation. 

27.  No  advisory  system  or  guidance  plan.     Athletic,  civic,  and  musical 

organizations.    Twenty  minute  assembly  daily. 

28.  Advisory  system.    Guidance  incidental.    Athletic  and  musical  organiza- 

tions.    Two  weekly  assemblies  with  50%  pupil  participation. 

29.  Agricultural  and  musical  organizations.    No  report  on  other  features. 

30.  Definite  advisory  system.    Vocational  guidance  thru  parent  conferences 

and  vocational  director.  Athletic,  civic,  literary,  musical,  publication, 
and  student  government  organizations.  No  report  on  assemblies. 

31.  Principal  is  adviser.     Guidance  thru  woodwork.     Athletic  and  literary 

organizations. 

32.  All  teachers  are  advisers.     Guidance  thru  pupil  conferences.     Three 

assemblies  monthly  with  50%  pupil  participation.  No  report  on  social 
organizations. 

33.  Teacher  advisers.    Guidance  thru  manual  arts  only.    Athletic,  musical, 

and  publication  organizations.    No  report  on  assemblies. 

34.  Athletic  organization.    No  report  on  assemblies. 

35.  Educational  and  vocational  guidance  thru  superintendent  and  super- 

visors of  subjects.  Athletic,  musical,  social,  and  student  government 
organizations.  One  weekly  assembly  with  very  little  pupil  participa- 
tion. 


Social  Organization  and  Guidance  65 

The  data  upon  which  the  foregoing  summary  is  based  show 
that  22  schools  in  all  give  an  affirmative  reply  to  the  inquiry 
relative  to  teacher  advisers,  but  "yes"  without  indication  of 
means,  or  "all  teachers,"  or  "pupil  can  consult  any  teacher," 
or  "incidental"  do  not  warrant  our  concluding  that  approximately 
seven  twelfths  of  these  schools  are  consciously  giving  personal  and 
educational  and  vocational  guidance  to  pupils.  One  school  says 
"no,  but  shall  have,"  3  say  "no"'  and  9  make  no  reply.  However, 
as  about  one-half  these  schools  are  very  small  (from  50  to  100 
pupils  in  the  six  upper  grades)  where  there  is  intimate  contact  of 
pupils  with  teachers,  the  situation  may  not  demand  the  same 
definitely  organized  advisory  system  which  is  desirable  in  the 
larger  school. 

Eight  of  the  35  schools  seem  to  have  some  definite  plan  of 
educational  and  vocational  guidance,  the  more  significant  meth- 
ods being,  card  record  of  pupil  characteristics,  parent  conferences, 
a  study  of  vocations,  lantern  slides  and  talks  in  auditorium 
periods  relative  to  vocational  life,  and  thru  a  vocational  director. 
A  few  other  schools  indicate  guidance  thru  pupil  conferences 
(probably  to  correct  errors  in  class  exercises,  incidental,  or  manual 
arts,  any  of  which  are  of  very  questionable  value  for  the  purpose 
designated.  For  the  most  part  only  the  larger  cities  seem  to  be 
attempting  the  problem  of  guidance  and  by  no  means  all  of  such 
schools.  At  the  present  time  we  can  hardly  say  that  these  so- 
called  reorganized  schools  have  established  definite  advisory  or 
guidance  plans  as  standards  of  practice. 

A  considerable  variety  of  extra-classroom  organizations  are 
open  to  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils  in  these  schools,  and  the 
list  is  greater  for  the  ninth  grade.  But  two  schools  report  no 
such  organizations;  one  a  small  rural  school  having  but  13  pupils 
in  the  eighth  grade,  and  perhaps  a  majority  of  these  transported 
in  school  vans  so  that  no  opportunity  is  afforded  for  remaining 
after  school  hours;  and  the  other,  a  city  school,  having  more  than 
150  pupils  in  the  eighth  grade.  Seven  schools  made  no  reply  to 
the  inquiry.  All  but  one  of  these  schools  not  reporting  are  small 
rural  schools  having,  probably,  not  more  than  one  or  two  such 
organizations  for  each  school.  Of  the  26  schools  reporting  such 
organizations,  5  report  but  1  organization  each;  8  report  2  each; 
5,  3  each;  2,  4  each;  and  6  report  5  or  more  each.  The  median 
number  is  2  and  the  average,  2.64  per  school.  Athletics  and 
musical  activities  are  the  ones  most  commonly  found,  the 


66       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

former  in  22  of  the  26  schools,  and  the  latter  in  20.  In  8  there  are 
school  publications,  literary  clubs  in  7,  civic  clubs  in  6,  student 
government  organizations  in  6,  and  boy  scouts  in  4.  From  the 
showing  of  these  schools,  two  or  more  types  of  extra-classroom 
social  activities  appear  to  be  the  common  practice,  as  a  means  of 
developing  the  latent  social  qualities  of  grammar  grade  pupils. 
But  22  schools  were  questioned  relative  to  assemblies.  One 
made  no  reply,  and  the  remaining  21  indicate  some  time  given  to 
assemblies.  Eleven  report  one  assembly  a  week;  2,  two  assem- 
blies a  month;  1,  three  a  month;  3,  twice  a  week;  and  4  daily. 
The  writer  has  visited  many  of  these  schools,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  13  from  which  reports  were  not  received,  and  in  no  case  has 
he  found  the  school  without  an  adequate  assembly  room.  The 
data  at  hand  indicate  that  one  assembly  a  week  is  the  prevailing 
tendency. 

SUMMARY. 

Provision  for  teacher  advisory  systems  has  not  been  perfected 
as  yet  in  these  schools;  about  one-third  have  definite  organza- 
tion,  another  third  have  a  more  or  less  indefinite  provision,  but 
the  tendency  is,  without  doubt,  in  the  direction  of  improvement. 

Definite  provision  for  educational  or  vocational  guidance  is 
being  well  worked  out  by  a  few  schools,  but  such  organization  is 
not  sufficiently  common  to  make  it  a  standard  feature  in  reor- 
ganized schools  as  yet. 

The  data  relative  to  social  organization  would  seem  to  warrant 
provision  for  a  minimum  of  two  such  activities  in  each  school, 
one  providing  for  physical  activity  and  the  other  of  a  musical 
or  other  nature  to  suit  local  conditions,  with  an  increasing  number 
of  organizations  in  the  larger  schools. 

One  assembly  period  a  week  is  the  more  common  practice 
in  the  grammar  grades  of  these  schools,  as  it  probably  is  in  the 
senior  high  school  as  well.  Data  submitted  do  not  indicate  that 
activities  involving  active  pupil  participation  are  common. 
Personal  experience,  based  on  much  high  school  visitation,  leaves 
the  impression  that  the  typical  assembly  activities  are,  the  formal 
school  announcements  given  by  the  principal  or  teachers,  occa- 
sional short  talks  by  visitors,  and  a  very  limited  amount  of 
chorus  singing  in  which  large  numbers  of  the  pupils  do  not  par- 
ticipate at  all. 


Additional  Features  of  Organization 


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68       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Additional  Features  of  Organization  69 

Table  8  indicates  several  features  of  practice  not  included 
under  our  four  main  headings,  and  should  be  read  as  follows: 
school  No.  3  has  a  junior  high  school  organization  which  includes 
the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades;  has  an  administrative 
grouping  of  5,  3,  and  4  grades  in  the  partial  units  of  the  system; 
has  1  junior  high  school,  separate  from  both  the  lower  grades  and 
the  senior  high  school,  which  is  housed  in  a  building  very  near 
the  high  school  (within  50  feet) ;  has  a  36  week  school  year,  and 
a  45  minute  class  period ;  has  a  teaching  staff  with  an  average  of 
2.5  years  of  training  beyond  high  school  graduation,  with  an 
average  of  8  years'  teaching  experience,  with  32%  of  the  number 
college  graduates,  95%  women,  5%  men,  and  an  average  salary 
of  $712;  and  has  no  definite  provision  for  the  admission  of  over- 
age pupils  to  these  junior  high  school  grades. 

GRADES  INCLUDED. 

Twenty-two  of  the  35  schools  include  grades  seven,  eight, 
and  nine  in  their  junior  high  school  organization;  9,  the  seventh 
and  eighth;  2,  the  eighth  and  ninth;  1,  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth;  and  1,  the  eighth  only.  The  eighth  grade  is  included  in 
all,  the  seventh  in  all  but  three,  and  the  ninth  in  twenty-four. 

If  the  object  of  the  junior  high  school  is  to  bridge  the  gap 
between  the  elementary  and  high  schools  and  to  provide  for  a 
gradual  transition,  then  the  last  grade  of  the  present  elementary 
school  and  the  first  of  the  high  school  should  be  included  in  the 
reorganization  if  the  objects  named  are  to  be  realized  in  the 
highest  degree.  Lewis  says:  "If  the  ninth  grade  is  not  included 
the  organization  cannot  be  called  a  junior  high  school  according 
to  our  present  conception  of  that  term."76  This  may  be  Lewis' 
conception  of  the  term,  and  it  seems  to  accord  with  the  statement 
of  aims  indicated  above,  but  it  is  not  that  in  actual  practice  in 
much  more  than  50%  of  schools  claiming  reorganization.  Doug- 
lass77 reports  on  100  schools  claiming  junior  high  school  organiza- 
tion, of  which  41  include  grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine;  5,  the 
seventh  to  the  tenth  inclusive;  4,  the  eighth  and  ninth;  and  3 
indicate  a  six-six  plan.  This  makes  a  total  of  53%  that  include 
grade  nine  with  the  eighth  in  such  reorganization.  Twenty-four 
of  the  35  Indiana  junior  type  schools  include  grades  eight  and 

78  Lewis,  E.  E.     Standards  for  Measuring  Junior  High  Schools,  bul.  25.  Univ.  la.  1916. 
"  Douglas,  A.  A.    The  Junior  High  School.     XVth  Year  Book  of  Nat.  Soc.,  etc..  part  III, 
p.   134. 


70       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

nine,  or  approximately  69%,  which  is  a  considerably  higher  per- 
cent than  for  schools  of  the  junior  type  scattered  over  the  country 
generally. 

TYPE  OF  ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION  CLAIMED. 

Twenty  of  these  schools  claim  a  6-3-3  type  of  organization; 
6,  a  6-2-4  type;  5,  a  6-6  type;  1,  a  5-3-4  type;  and  1,  an  8-4  plan; 
and  2,  a  7-5  plan. 

If  a  6-3-3  plan  means  that  the  first  three  years  of  the  secondary 
course  constitutes  a  distinctive  unit  in  itself,  then  but  two  schools, 
numbers  1  and  10,  with  clearly  differentiated  courses  for  the 
junior  high  school,  are  entitled  to  this  classification,  Three  or 
four  of  these  schools  claiming  a  6-3-3  type  are  essentially  of  the 
6-2-4  type,  while  all  the  others  claiming  a  6-3-3  organization 
should  properly  be  classed  as  of  the  6-6  type.  Approximately 
60%  of  these  schools  are  of  the  6-6  type  and  25%  of  the  6-2-4  type. 

HOUSING. 

In  25  cities  and  towns  the  junior  high  school  is  housed  in  the 
same  building  with  the  senior  high  school,  and  in  at  least  14  of 
these  the  junior  pupils  occupy  the  same  assembly  and  recitation 
rooms  as  the  senior  pupils.  In  city  10  there  is  a  second  junior 
school  in  a  separate  building.  In  5  cities  the  whole  or  the  major 
part  of  the  junior  organization  is  in  a  separate  building,  in  two  of 
of  which  schools,  1  and  4,  the  building  is  inadequate  in  size  and 
some  of  the  seventh  grade  pupils  remain  in  a  nearby  elementary 
school  building  while  the  ninth  grade  occupies  the  senior  high 
school  building  which  is  also  close  by  (within  one  block).  In  5 
cities  the  junior  school  occupies  a  floor  of  an  elementary  school 
building,  and  in  two  of  these  the  junior  school  is  near  or  very 
near  the  senior  building.  In  all  but  5  of  the  37  junior  schools  the 
junior  school  is  within  5  blocks  of  the  senior  school,  and  in  2 
of  these  cases  the  ninth  grade  is  in  the  junior  school  with  the  eighth 
so  that  adequate  provision  is  made  for  the  overlapping  of  the  work 
of  these  two  grades. 

All  of  these  37  junior  schools  have  auditoriums  or  large  assembly 
rooms  suitable  for  meetings  of  the  entire  school.  Every  school 
has  adequate  shop  and  laboratory  facilities  for  wood  work,  cook- 
ing, and  sewing,  and  all  those  located  in  high  school  buildings 
have  access  to  the  regular  laboratories  for  general  science  in  case 
the  subject  is  given,  as  well  as  for  agriculture. 


Additional  Features  of  Organization  71 

• 

TIME  DISTRIBUTION 

Three  schools  have  a  term  of  40  weeks;  17,  36  weeks;  1,  34 
weeks;  and  14,  32  weeks.  The  median  is  36  weeks  and  the 
average,  34.7  weeks. 

Seven  schools  report  a  60  minute  class  period;  2,  55;  1,  50; 
2,  45;  20,  40;  and  3,  30  minutes.  The  median  is  40  and  the 
average  44.4  minutes.  In  all  but  the  3-30  minute  period  schools 
and  1  of  the  40  minute  period  schools  some  time  is  devoted  to 
supervised  study  in  each  study  subject,  varying  from  15  to  30 
minutes  for  each  class  period.  A  school  day  of  6-60  minute 
periods  may  be  desirable  in  the  city  school  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  small  rural  school  with  classes  of  from  10  to  20  pupils 
can  afford  to  change  from  8-40  minute  perios  to  6-60  minute 
periods  as  the  number  of  teachers  would  have  to  be  very  ma- 
terially increased.  Douglass78  reports  on  90  schools  of  which  13 
have  60  minute  periods;  5,  50;  12,  45  to  49;  39,  40  to  44;  4,  35; 
15,  30;  1,  25 ;  and  1,  20  minute  periods.  The  median  for  Douglass* 
returns  is  40  minutes  and  the  average  41.9. 

TEACHER  DATA. 

Teache-  training.  Twenty-eight  schools  reported  data  from 
which  to  compute  the  number  of  years  of  training  of  teachers 
beyond  the  four  year  high  school  course.  As  training  of  one  and  a 
fraction  years  was  counted  as  one  year  in  a  few  cases,  the  figures 
indicating  the  amount  of  training  may  be  slightly  below  rather 
than  above  the  actual  facts.  Two  schools  report  an  average  train- 
ing of  4  or  more  years  beyond  high  school  for  junior  high  school 
teachers,  the  same  teachers  being  also  teachers  in  the  senior  high 
school;  11  report  an  average  of  3  but  less  than  4  years;  12,  2  but 
less  than  3  years;  3,  1  but  less  than  2  years;  and  none  less  than  1 
year.  The  median  by  schools  is  2.96  years  and  the  average  2.71. 

The  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary 
Schools79  recommends  the  same  teacher  training  standards  for 
junior  high  school  teachers  as  for  senior  high  school  teachers, 
namely,  an  A.B.  degree  from  a  standard  college  with  eleven 
semester  hours  in  education  courses.  Very  wisely  the  Association 
has  not  attempted  to  make  its  recommendation  a  required 
standard.  Many  superintendents  and  educational  writers  are 
not  at  all  convinced  that,  under  our  present  conditions  of  teacher 
training,  this  is  a  realizable  or  even  a  desirable  standard. 

«  Douglass,  A.  A.     The  Junior  High  School.  XVth  Year  Book  of  the  Nat.  Soc.  for  the 
Study  of  Ed.  Part  III,  1916.  p.  134. 

7»  Proceedings  of  the  N.  C.  A.  of  Colleges  &  Secondary  Schools,  1916. 


72       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Twenty-eight  schools  reported  the  average  years  of  teaching 
experience  of  their  junior  high  school  teachers.  In  4  schools  the 
average  is  15  or  more  years;  in  4,  10  but  less  than  15  years;  in  18, 
5  but  less  than  10  years ;  and  in  2,  4  years.  The  median  by  schools 
is  8  years  and  the  average  8.6. 

Twenty-six  schools  reported  data  from  which  the  per  cent  of 
college  graduates  among  junior  high  school  teachers  has  been 
computed.  Three  schools  have  none;  3,  more  than  5%  but  less 
than  25%;  10,  more  than  25%  but  less  than  50%;  7,  50%  but 
less  than  75%;  and  3,  more  than  75%.  The  median  by  schools 
is  41.5%  and  the  average,  43.1%. 

Thirty-three  schools  reported  data  from  which  the  per  cent 
of  men  and  women  teachers  in  junior  high  schools  has  been  com- 
puted. Four  schools  have  40%  but  less  than  50%  women 
teachers;  5,  50%  but  less  than  60%;  13,  60%  but  less  than  70%; 
7,  70%  but  less  than  80%;  3,  80%  but  less  than  90%;  and  1, 
95%.  The  median  per  cent  of  women  teachers  by  schools  is  60 
and  the  average  64.  The  corresponding  data  for  men  teachers 
are  40%  and  36%  respectively. 

Data  submitted  in  a  later  section  show  that  the  per  cent  of 
men  teachers  is  far  greater  in  the  schools  claiming  junior  high 
school  organization  than  in  other  schools. 

Many  of  our  leading  writers  on  educational  theory  advocate 
a  higher  per  cent  of  men  teachers  in  the  grammar  grades.  Rela- 
tive to  junior  high  school  teachers,  Johnston  says:  "We  shall 
have  better  teachers — and  more  men  teachers — .  More  men 
will  become  junior  high  school  principals,  and  there  will  be  a 
more  nearly  divided  teaching  staff  on  the  lines  of  sex."80  Snedden 
wntes:  "If  the  state  is  willing  to  pay  the  price,  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  men  teachers  should  be  assigned  to  departmental  positions, 
not  primarily  because  they  are  necessarily  better  teachers  than 
women,  but  because  it  is  desirable  to  introduce,  in  boys  classes, 
at  any  rate,  the  influence  of  masculine  personality."81 

Twenty-five  schools  contributed  data  relative  to  average 
salaries  paid  to  junior  high  school  teachers.  One  school  reports 
an  average  salary  of  $576;  3,  $600  but  less  than|$650;  3,  $650  but 
less  than  $700;  10,  $700  but  less  than  $750;  3,  $750  but  less  than 
$800;  2,  $800  but  less  than  $850;  1,  $850  but  less  than  $900;  and 
2  more  than  $900.  The  median  by  schools  is  $720  and  the 
average  $735. 

so  Johnston,  C.  H.     The  Junior  High  School.  Ed.  Ad.&  Sup.  2:419. 

8»  Snedden,  D.    Education  for  Children  from  12  to  14.  etc.  ,Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2:427. 


Additional  Features  on  Organization  73 

ADMISSION  TO  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

It  was  indicated  in  a  previous  section  that  definite  provision 
for  over-age  pupils  was  ranked  lowest  of  the  eighteen  items 
essential  to  junior  high  school  organization.  In  other  words 
the  judgment  of  these  25  men  is  that  the  junior  high  school  is  an 
institution  primarily  for  normal  and  bright  children.  Their 
practice  seems  to  accord  with  this  judgment.  Sixteen  of  these 
35  schools  state  that  no  provision  is  made  for  the  over-age  child 
in  these  grades.  Four  only  of  the  larger  cities  indicate  rather 
definite  provision  for  such  children.  School  number  1  states 
that  special  groups  of  over-age  and  slow-progress  pupils  are 
brought  into  the  junior  high  school,  and  that  programs  are  made 
to  suit  group  and  individual  needs.  Some  pupils  in  this  school 
are  admitted  from  as  low  as  the  second  grade.  School  number  10 
states  that  pupils  ready  for  the  seventh  grade,  who  are  over  four- 
teen years  old,  may  choose  the  industrial  work  of  the  eighth  year 
program  in  place  of  part  of  the  academic  work  of  the  seventh. 
School  number  13  indicates  individual  programs  for  all  excep- 
tional children  in  all  grades,  and  school  number  25  states  that 
over-age  pupils  are  advanced  from  the  sixth  grade  without  regular 
promotion  on  the  advice  of  the  elementary  school  principal,  and 
that  such  pupils  are  given  a  program  containing  much  industrial 
work.  Two  schools  made  no  response  to  this  item,  and  the  re- 
maining 13  indicated  a  very  limited  provision  for  the  admission 
of  over-age  pupils  regardless  of  the  previous  scholastic  attain- 
ments when  it  would  seem  to  be  to  the  best  interests  of  the  child 
to  do  so.  Some  of  these  schools  say,  "a  few  each  year,"  "occa- 
sionally," and  the  like.  One  assigns  special  programs  for  any  such 
pupils,  and  two  others  assign  the  regular  seventh  grade  work, 
while  ten  do  not  indicate  the  nature  of  the  work  assigned  in  case 
they  admit  such  pupils.  In  but  two  of  these  schools  is  there  any 
evidence  to  show  that  over-age  pupils  are  admitted  from  any 
but  the  sixth  grade.  Aside  from  those  schools  having  clearly 
differentiated  curricula  provision  for  over-age  pupils,  not  regu- 
larly promoted  from  the  sixth  grade,  has  been  considered  not 
at  all  or  in  very  limited  degree. 

Douglass82  reports  that  68  of  94  junior  schools  require  regular 
promotion  from  the  preceding  grade  as  a  requirement  for  entrance 
while  in  Indiana  schools,  16  of  33  reporting  have  the  same  re- 
quirement, although  some  of  those  stating  limited  provision  may 
easily  fall  in  this  class. 

82  (Reference  previously  given,  78  )  p.  48. 


74      Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Educational  writers  have  urged  consideration  of  the  needs  of 
over-age  children  as  one  of  the  important  features  of  the  junior 
high  school  movement.  Snedden  urges  that  "all  children  between 
12  and  15  years  of  age  (including  children  under  twelve  ready 
for  the  seventh  grade,  and  excluding  children  under  fifteen  ready 
for  the  regular  or  senior  high  school)  should  be  sent  to  the  central 
Junior  High  School  or  Intermediate  School."83  Johnston  says: 
"The  pupil  population  of  the  junior  high  school  will  include  not 
only  those  now  in  seventh  and  eighth  and  ninth  grades,  but  all 
of  these  ages  now  'over-age'  in  the  elementary  six  grades  and  all 
over  fourteen  who  for  any  reason  are  out  of  school.  It  is  a  pupil 
democracy."84  Spaulding  says  that  "promotion  must  be  deter- 
mined not  by  what  a  pupil  has  learned,  but  by  what  he  needs  to 
learn."85 

No  doubt  many  pupils  have  been  done  great  injustice  in  the 
past  by  compelling  all  to  reach  a  common  level  of  achievement 
in  every  stage  of  academic  work  before  securing  advancement  to 
the  next,  but  it  is  not  clear  that  equal  injustice  may  not  be  done 
in  going  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  promoting  pupils  on  the  age 
basis  alone.  Even  the  basis  of  educational  need  is  a  very  doubtful 
experiment  unless  the  capacity  of  the  child  be  carefully  considered 
in  this  connection.  Other  factors  should  be  considered  with  both 
of  the  foregoing  as,  intellectual  maturity,  social  maturity,  physical 
development,  and  probable  occupational  interests  and  needs. 

*  Snedden,  D.     (Reference  81)  p.  426. 

84  Johnston,  C.  H.     (Reference  80)  p.  418. 

•»  Spaulding,  F.  E.     Portland,  Ore.,  Survey,    p.  165.  1913. 


Departmental  School  Organization  75 

d.    Departmental  school  standards  and  their  comparison  with 
junior  high  school  standards. 

By  some  it  is  contended  that  the  intermediate  or  junior  high 
school  has  effected  no  reorganization  that  good  departmental 
schools  generally  have  not  accomplished.  Others,  who  grant  the 
leadership  of  the  junior  type  school,  maintain  that  probably 
many  departmental  schools  are  entitled  to  junior  high  school 
classification,  not  on  the  basis  of  name  claimed,  but  rather  on  that 
of  real  reorganization. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  section  to  determine  departmental 
school  standards  and  to  compare  them  with  those  previously 
determined  for  the  so-called  junior  high  schools. 

(1)     SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY  MODIFICATIONS  IN  DEPARTMENTAL 

SCHOOLS. 

Table  9  shows  the  subject  offerings  in  departmental  schools 
and  the  number  of  class  periods  per  week  assigned  to  each  subject, 
and  is  to  be  read  as  table  5  under  section  c  (1). 

Household  and  manual  arts  and  drawing  periods  have  been 
assigned  on  the  basis  of  40  to  50  minute  periods,  as  in  junior 
high  schools.  As  several  schools  give  but  30  minutes  to  such 
subject  periods,  their  periods  are  represented  in  fractional  units 
in  some  cases. 


76       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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78       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Departmental  School  Organization  79 

NEW  SUBJECTS. 

Household  or  manual  arts  or  agriculture  are  required  in  every 
seventh  and  eighth  grade  for  two  recitation  periods  weekly  b}' 
State  Board  regulation.1  In  3  of  these  schools  the  time  distribu- 
tion of  subjects  is  not  indicated;  in  3,  1  period  a  week  (of  40  or 
50  minutes);  in  6,  1J^  periods;  in  16,  2  periods;  in  2,  3  periods; 
and  in  5,  4  periods.  The  median  number  of  periods  required  in 
the  32  schools  is  2,  and  the  average  is  for  manual  training  2  and 
for  household  arts  2.1.  Additional  work  with  the  ninth  grade 
is  elective  for  some  pupils  in  three  of  these  schools.  Agriculture 
is  required  in  10  schools.  In  1  the  time  is  not  indicated;  in  4, 
2  periods  a  week;  in  2,  1^  periods;  and  in  3,  1  period.  The 
average  for  the  35  schools  is  .4  period  a  week.  The  total  average 
time  for  household  or  manual  arts  and  agriculture  is  approxi- 
mately 2.2  periods  a  week.  This  average  is  but  .4  periods  a  week 
less  than  for  the  same  type  of  work  in  the  junior  high  school 
group,  and  if  we  consider  the  number  of  periods  regardless  of 
length,  the  time  is  the  same. 

General  science  is  required  in  the  eighth  grade  of  but  one  of 
these  schools  and  may  be  taken  by  some  pupils  with  the  ninth 
grade  in  six  schools.  Twelve  schools  offer  the  subject  in  grade 
nine.  Thirteen  of  the  junior  type  schools  offer  general  science 
in  grade  nine,  in  three  of  which  it  is  elective  for  some  eighth 
grade  pupils,  and  in  15  of  the  junior  type  eighth  grades  the  sub- 
ject is  required,  or  the  subject  is  offered  in  28  of  the  35  junior 
schools  and  in  but  13  of  the  departmental  schools  in  grades  eight 
or  nine. 

Algebra  is  required  in  grade  8 A  in  two  schools,  daily,  and 
bookkeeping  in  one  twice  a  week. 

Drawing  (freehand)  is  required  in  31  schools  and  is  elective 
in  one  with  the  ninth  grade  for  some  pupils.  In  4  schools  no  time 
is  indicated;  in  1,  J^  periods  a  week;  in  16,  1  period;  in  3,  1J^ 
periods;  in  6,  2  periods;  and  in  1,  3  periods.  The  median  is  1 
period  and  the  average  1.2. 

Thirty-two  schools  require  music  and  in  one  it  is  elective. 
In  2  schools  the  time  is  not  indicated;  in  6,  1  period  a  week;  in 
23,  2  periods;  and  in  1,  3  periods.  The  median  is  2  periods  and 
the  average,  1.7  periods.  Music  periods  average  about  30  min- 
utes in  length.  Conditions  with  respect  to  the  number  of  periods 
in  drawing  and  music  are  approximately  the  same  as  in  the  junior 

»  Uniform  Course  of  Study  for  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Indiana.    1915-16.    p.  214. 


80       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

type  schools,  where  both  subjects  are  required  on  the  average  1.3 
periods  weekly,  with  periods  averaging  about  44  minutes  in 
length. 

Physical  training  is  required  in  7  of  the  departmental  schools 
and  is  elective  in  1  for  about  1.5  periods  a  week,  while  it  is  re- 
quired in  10  and  elective  in  1  of  the  junior  schools. 

Twenty-three  departmental  schools  report  no  offering  of  high 
school  subjects  as  eighth  grade  electives,  the  remaining  12  offer- 
ing one  or  more  of  such  electives  to  strong  eighth  grade  pupils 
who  have  completed  a  part  of  the  eighth  grade  subjects,  or  as  an 
extra  subject.  The  following  subjects  are  mentioned:  algebra 
by  7  schools,  English  by  7,  German  by  8,  Latin  by  9,  general 
science  by  6,  botany  by  1,  ancient  history  by  1,  drawing  by  1, 
bookkeeping  by  1,  physical  training  by  1,  household  arts  by  3, 
and  manual  arts  by  3.  In  the  junior  type  schools  German  is 
available  to  all  or  part  of  eighth  grade  pupils  in  27  of  the  35 
schools  and  Latin  in  12,  in  other  respects  the  choice  of  electives 
being  about  the  same. 

OLD  SUBJECTS. 

The  total  time  distribution  in  these  schools  for  English  is: 

2,  no  time  indicated ;  2,  5  periods  a  week;  3,  7  periods;  1,  9  periods; 

3,  10  periods;  3,  11  periods;  1,  llj^  periods;  3,  12  periods;  2 
13  periods;  4,  14  periods;  1,  14}^  periods;  and  10,  15  periods. 
The  median  is  13  periods  a  week  and  the  average  12. 

In  reading  7  schools  report  undistributed  time;  1,  2  periods  a 
week;  2,  3  periods;  5,  4  periods;  and  20,  5  periods.  The  median 
of  the  28  is  5  and  the  average  4.6  periods  a  week.  The  probable 
average  with  the  7  included  is  about  4.3  periods.  This  is  nearly 
double  the  number  of  weekly  periods  assigned  to  literature  in  the 
junior  type  schools,  which  was  2.3  periods. 

In  grammar-composition  7  schools  report  undistributed  time ; 
1,  3  periods  a  week;  2,  4  periods;  21,  5  periods;  1,  6  periods;  3, 
7  periods.  The  median  for  the  28  is  5  periods  and  the  average 
5.1.  The  probable  average  including  the  7  is  about  4.5  periods 
a  week. 

In  spelling  four  schools  indicate  no  distribution  of  the  time; 
3  indicate  no  spelling;  5,  1  period  a  week;  2,  2J/£  periods;  8,  2 
periods;  12,  2}^  periods;  and  1,  3  periods.  The  median  for  the 
31  schools  is  2  and  the  average  1.8,  which  is  about  one  period  a 
week  more  than  in  the  junior  type  schools. 


Departmental  School  Organization  8 1 

In  writing  3  schools  indicate  no  distribution  of  the  English 
time;  11,  no  time;  3,  1  period  a  week;  1,1^  periods;  6,  2  periods; 
11,  2j/£  periods.  The  median  for  the  32  schools  is  2  periods  a 
week  and  the  average  1.7,  which  is  1.2  periods  a  week  more  than 
in  the  junior  type  schools. 

The  average  number  of  periods  a  week  for  English,  exclusive 
of  writing,  is  approximately  10.3  periods,  while  in  the  junior  type 
schools  the  corresponding  time  is  5.6  periods  a  week. 

Arithmetic  is  assigned  5  periods  a  week  by  31  schools;  time 
is  not  indicated  by  2  schools;  and  in  the  remaining  2  arithmetic 
is  given  daily  for  one-half  year  with  algebra  the  other  half  year. 
The  median  number  of  periods  a  week  is  5  and  the  average, 
approximately  5.  This  is  .4  period  a  week  more  than  in  the  junior 
schools,  where  one-half  the  schools  gave  the  subject  4  periods  a 
week,  with  an  average  of  4.6. 

In  history-civics  one  school  does  not  indicate  total  time  but 
indicates  a  separate  course  in  civics;  2  schools  report  3  periods  a 
week;  5,  4  periods;  24,  5  periods;  3,  7  periods.  The  median  is  5 
and  the  average  4.9.  Fifteen  schools  indicate  a  separate  course 
in  civics,  in  most  cases  4  or  5  periods  weekly  during  the  second 
half  of  the  8th  grade;  one  school  devoted  2  out  of  5  history  periods 
to  civics,  and  7,  1  period.  Two  schools  check  civics  but  do  not 
indicate  the  time  given.  Twenty-five  of  the  35  schools  indicate 
1  or  more  periods  a  week  for  civics,  with  such  readings  as  Dunn, 
Nida,  Harrison,  and  Lapp  as  texts  and  reference  books.  The 
total  number  of  weekly  periods  for  history-civics  is  about  the 
same  in  junior  and  departmental  schools,  but  a  somewhat  larger 
offering  in  civics  is  given  by  the  departmental  schools. 

Ten  school  do  not  offer  physiology-hygiene  in  the  eighth 
grade;  3  do  not  indicate  the  time  given;  9,  2  periods;  6,  3  periods; 
3,  4  periods;  4,  5  periods.  The  median  is  2  and  the  average,  for 
32  schools,  2.1.  This  is  .9  period  a  week  more  on  the  average 
for  all  schools  than  among  junior  high  schools,  which  had  an 
average  of  1.2  periods. 

Twenty-one  schools  do  not  require  geography  in  grade  eight; 
3  require  the  subject  but  do  not  indicate  the  time;  4,  2  periods 
a  week  (4  periods  for  a  half  year) ;  2,  3  periods;  3,  4  periods;  and 
2,  5  periods.  The  median  is  0  periods  and  the  average,  1.1 
periods.  The  average  for  the  geography-physiology-hygiene 
combination  is  3.2  periods  a  week.  Six  schools  require  no 
science,  but  in  three  of  these  general  science  is  elective  for  some 


82       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

pupils  in  grade  eight,  and  agriculture  is  required  in  two  of  them. 
But  9  junior  type  schools  offer  geography  in  grade  eight  as 
contrasted  with  14  departmental  schools. 

In  conclusion,  the  junior  type  schools  offer  approximately 
the  same  work  in  agriculture,  manual  and  household  arts  as  do 
the  departmental  schools.  General  science  is  offered  in,  more 
than  twice  as  many  junior  type  schools  as  in  departmental 
schools,  and  also  about  three  times  as  many  junior  schools  offer 
eighth  grade  pupils  an  opportunity  to  take  some  high  school 
subject  or  subjects.  About  twice  as  many  periods  a  week  are 
given  by  departmental  schools  to  work  in  English,  which  is 
probably  indicative  of  a  more  formal  type  of  reading,  grammar, 
and  spelling  with  less  unity  on  the  whole  than  in  the  junior  schools. 
On  the  other  hand  the  departmental  schools,  in  larger  numbers, 
seem  to  have  effected  a  greater  degree  of  reorganization  in  their 
history-civics  courses. 


Departmental  School  Organization 


83 


(2)     PROVISION  FOB  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 
DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS. 


IN 


TABLE  10. 
PROVISION   FOR    INDIVIDUAL    DIFFERENCES    IN    DEPARTMENTAL    SCHOOLS 


SCHOOL 
1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 


FREQUENCY  OF 
PROMOTION 


1  year 
J^year 


Jiyear 
1  year 


year 


Hyear 
J^year 


1  year 
lyear 


J^year 
lyear 


lyear 
lyear 
lyear 


1  year 
lyear 
lyear 
Hyear 
lyear 


METHOD  OF 
PROMOTION 


PROGRESS 
GROUPS  * 


subject 

a&s 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

subj.  in  part 

a&s 

grade 

none 

subject 

none 

subj.  in  part 

none 

grade 

none 

subject 

a&s 

subject 

a&s 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

subject 
subject 

a  &  s-lim. 
a&s 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

subject 

a  &  s-lim. 

grade 

none 

subject 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

a&s 

grade 

grade 

none 

subject 

none+ 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

a 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

grade 

none 

PROVISION   FOR 
INDIVIDUALS^ 

ex,  sp-as 

ex 

sp-as 

ex,  sp-h,  ir-p 

ex 

ex 

none 

none 


none 
ex,  ir-p 
ex,v 

ir-p 

ex 

ex,  fr,  ir-p 

none 

ex 

none 

ex 


ir-p 

ex 

none 

ir-p 

ex 

none 
none 

max.  min,  sp- 
h. 


Table  10  should  be  read:  school  1  promotes  half-yearly, 
promotes  by  subject,  provides  accelerant  and  slow  groups,  and 
provides  for  flexible  individual  advancement  thru  extra  subjects 
and  special  assignments  to  some  pupils. 

Because  of  the  subject  of  study  showing  of  this  group  of 
schools,  the  inquiry  relative  to  differentiated  courses  was  not 
submitted,  it  being  evident  that  such  provision  did  not  exist  as 

*  a  &  s  and  lim.  mean  accelerant  and  slow  progress  groups  and  limited,  respectively. 

J  ex,  sp-as,  sp-h,  ir-p,  v,  fr,  max,  min,  mean  respectively  extra  subject,  special  assignment, 
special  help,  irregular  promotion,  vacation  school,  fewer  subjects,  maximum  work,  minimum 
work. 

+  See  discussion  on  progress  groups. 


84       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

two-thirds  of  these  schools  offer  no  electives  and  those  that  do 
only  to  individual  pupils  with  the  ninth  grade.  As  but  three  of 
these  schools  are  in  cities  of  more  than  20,000  population,  we 
should  scarcely  expect  to  find  many  of  the  35  making  provision 
for  differentiated  curricula.  It  may  be  added  that  in  Indiana 
cities  of  50,000  and  over,  not  included  in  this  study,  very  little 
provision  is  made  for  differentiated  opportunities  for  all  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  pupils. 

Twelve  schools  have  yearly  promotions  and  23,  half  yearly. 
Here,  as  in  the  junior  high  school  group,  the  determining  factor 
is  chiefly  that  of  the  size  of  the  school.  But  three  schools  of 
3,000  and  more  population  have  yearly  promotions. 

But  11  of  these  schools  have  promotion  by  subject,  while  in 
24  it  is  by  grade.  This  is  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  junior  high 
school  group  where  32  of  the  35  schools  have  promotion  by  sub- 
ject. In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  majority  of  these  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  are  housed  in  the  high  school  building  and  have 
departmental  teaching  in  practically  all  subjects,  it  appears  that 
the  possibilities  for  plans  of  flexible  advancement  are  not  at  all 
adequately  utilized. 

Eight  schools  report  some  provision  for  accelerant  and  slow 
groups,  although  in  two  of  the  largest  of  these  cities  the  provision 
is  conditioned  by  "when  possible"  and  "in  a  few  classes,"  which 
indicates  that  such  procedure  is  scarcely  a  fixed  policy  of  these 
schools.  School  number  30  reports  an  accelerant  group  but  no 
retarded  group,  while  school  number  27  has  been  trying  the  plan 
of  having  all  eighth  grade  pupils  cover  a  year's  work  in  a  half 
year  and  then  have  all  who  fail  repeat  the  work. 

Schools  were  asked  as  to  the  provision  made  for  rapid  advance- 
ment of  bright  pupils.  Ten  schools  made  no  response  to  this 
item.  The  program  of  studies  for  the  eighth  grade  shows  that  12 
schools  offer  some  ninth  grade  electives  to  strong  eighth  grade 
pupils.  Three  other  schools  report  special  assignments  (not  extra 
subjects)  for  strong  pupils;  one  indicates  minimum  work  and 
special  help  for  slow  pupils;  one,  vacation  school;  five,  irregular 
or  double  promotion  in  exceptional  cases;  and  eight  indicate 
that  no  provision  is  made  for  individual  progress.  Probably 
individual  help,  in  a  limited  way,  is  given  in  most  schools,  but 
without  definitely  organized  plan.  If  a  list  of  specific  provisions 
for  individual  adjustment  had  been  submitted  for  checking,  no 
doubt,  many  features  of  practice  would  have  been  reported  that 


Departmental  School  Organization 


85 


are  not  given  in  this  report.  It  is  not  evident  that  systematic 
planning  for  adjustment  of  group  and  individual  differences  is 
a  marked  feature  of  practice  in  any  considerable  number  of  these 
departmental  schools. 

(3)     METHOD  INDICES  IN  DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS. 

TABLE  11 
FACTORS  IN  METHOD  MODIFICATION  IN  DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS 


SUPERVISED 
STUDY 


PROJECT 
PLAN 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

The  degree  of  departmentalization  in  these  schools  has  been 
determined  from  data  relative  to  the  number  of  different  teachers 
a  normal  pupil  has  in  any  given  term  in  grades  six,  seven,  eight 
and  nine.  The  tabulated  replies  show  the  following  results: 

Note:     sp,  ac.,  m.,  tr.,  d.,  sc.,  com.,  dr.,  mean  special  subjects  academic  subjects,  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  commercial  subjects,  and  drawing,  respectively. 
1 1ndicates  that  the  data  submitted  are  not  clear. 
Table  11  is  to  be  read  as  the  last  4  columns  of  table  7. 


15  min- 

yes 

15 

no 

0 

no 

0 

yes 

15 

in  part 

30 

in  part 

geog-  only 

in  part 

20 

yes 

25 

.... 

30 

yes 

25 

0 

yes 

0 

yes 

15 

yes 

0 

25 

yes 

10 

no 

0 

yes 

0 

in  part 

25 

yes 

arith-  only 

yes 

0 

yes 

some  subj- 

yes 

25 

yes 

0 

0 

0 

no 

15  (total) 

yes 

some  subj- 

yes 

0 

in  part 

0 

in  part 

15 

in  part 

0 

no 

some  subj- 

yes 

0 

yes 

JUNION  H.  S.  WORK 

%    DEPARTMENTAL 

BY  H.  S. 

TEACHERS  WITH 

TEACHERS 

H.  S.  EXPERIENCE 

part  special 

14 

special  subject 

.... 

sp.  &  part  ac. 

50  + 

sp.  &partac. 

33  (ac.) 

sp.  &  English 
sp.  &ac.  in  8th 

40  (ac.) 
66  (8th) 

sp.  &  part  ac. 

80 

special 

43 

special 

30 

none 

none 

'is' 

music  &  dr. 

20 

H.  S.  subjects 

0 

none 

0 

domestic  science 

14 

none 

0 

m.  tr-d.  sc-com. 

33 

special 

0 

none 

11 

special 

71 

special 

40 

sp.  &  English 

75+ 

m.  tr.  &  dom.  sc. 

25+ 

none+ 

0 

sp.  Eng.  math. 

100 

none 

special 

•   '25' 

special 

100 

special 

.... 

none+ 

sp.  &  English 

specia1 

sp.  read.,  hist. 

'n 

special 

50+ 

special 

28 

86       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

grade  6 — in  2  schools  1  teacher;  in  8,  2  teachers;  in  7,  3  teachers; 
in  3,  4  teachers;  in  3,  5  teachers;  in  3,  6  teachers;  in  1,  7  teachers; 
and  in  1,  8  teachers.  The  median  is  3  teachers.  Grade  7 — in  1 
school  2  teachers;  in  5,  3  teachers;  in  8,  4  teachers;  in  5,  5  teachers; 
in  7,  6  teachers;  in  2,  8  teachers.  The  median  is  5  teachers. 
Grade  8 — in  3  schools  2  teachers;  in  4,  3  teachers;  in  8,  4  teachers; 
in  5,  5  teachers;  in  6,  6  teachers;  in  2,  7  teachers;  and  in  2,  8 
teachers.  The  median  is  4.5  teachers.  Grade  9 — in  9  schools  4 
teachers;  in  4,  5  teachers;  and  in  1,  6  teachers.  The  median  is  4 
teachers. 

The  corresponding  data  from  18  junior  high  schools  show  grade 
medians  of  3,  6,  5  and  5  teachers,  respectively,  as  compared  with 
3,  5,  4.5  and  4  in  the  departmental  schools.  These  data  include 
teachers  of  special  subjects  as  drawing,  music,  domestic  science, 
and  manual  training,  usually  from  two  to  three  in  all,  as  well  as 
teachers  of  the  traditional  common  subjects.  While  the  junior 
schools  have  a  somewhat  greater  number  of  teachers  per  pupil  in 
grades  seven  and  eight,  the  differences  are  not  so  great  as  to 
cause  any  great  difference  in  the  degree  of  departmentalization 
of  teaching.  Apparently  in  the  schools  of  either  group  the 
typical  pupil  has  from  two  to  three  teachers  for  the  traditional 
subjects  and  a  like  number  for  special  subjects. 

Seven  schools  report  25  or  30  minutes  of  supervised  study 
daily  for  each  study  subject;  1,  20  minutes;  5,  15  minutes;  1, 
10  minutes;  5  devote  some  time  daily  or  twice  weekly  to  some 
subjects;  1  indicates  1-15  minute  study  period  daily;  and  15 
say  that  they  do  not  have  supervised  study.  About  one-half 
these  schools  have  made  some  definite  provision  for  directed 
study  under  the  classroom  teacher  daily,  while  such  practice  pre- 
vails in  31  of  the  35  junior  type  schools. 

Relative  to  the  use  of  the  project  plan  in  prevocational  work, 
5  schools  made  no  report,  5  indicate  that  they  do  not  use  the 
method,  7  say  "in  part",  and  18  give  an  unqualified  "yes". 
This  represents  essentially  the  same  condition  as  in  the  junior 
type  schools  where  20  use  the  project  plan,  3  in  part,  8  do  not. 
and  4  make  no  reply. 

Our  data  indicate  that  in  none  of  these  schools  is  all  the 
academic  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  taught  by  the 
regular  high  school  teaching  staff,  while  in  the  junior  type  schools 
high  school  teachers  had  charge  of  all  grammar  grade  work  in 
18  of  the  35  schools.  In  9  schools  high  school  teachers  are  in 


Departmental  School  Organization  87 

charge  of  special  subjects  and  a  part  of  the  academic  work;  in 
1 7  schools  high  school  teachers  are  in  charge  of  all  or  part  of  the 
special  subjects;  in  1  school  high  school  electives  only  are  taught 
by  high  school  teachers  (offered  to  some  eighth  grade  pupils 
with  the  ninth  grade);  and  8  schools  indicate  no  teachers  in 
common  between  high  school  and  departmental  grades,  while  in 
the  junior  type  schools  but  two  schools  had  no  teachers  in  com- 
mon between  the  high  school  and  grammar  grades.  In  more  than 
three-fourths  the  junior  type  schools  the  major  part  of  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  work  is  carried  by  regular  high  school  teachers, 
while  the  same  is  true  for  not  to  exceed  one-fourth  of  the  depart- 
mental schools.  The  foregoing  data  indicate  far  less  contact 
between  high  school  and  grammar  grades  in  teaching  staff  and 
probable  high  school  methodology  in  departmental  schools  than 
in  those  of  the  junior  type. 

In  two  of  these  schools,  both  in  small  villages,  all  the  teachers 
of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  classes  have  had  high  school 
teaching  experience;  in  2,  75%  to  80%;  in  5,  50%  to  74%;  in  9, 
25%  to  49%;  in  5,  11%  to  20%;  in  5,  0%  and  7  schools  made  no 
reply  to  the  item.  The  median  per  cent  is  31.5  and  the  average 
37.  The  schools  of  the  junior  type  had  a  median  of  100%  and  an 
average  of  75.5%. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  junior  type  schools  are  securing  a 
type  of  instruction  and  discipline  that  probably  much  more 
closely  approximates  the  high  school  type  than  are  the  depart- 
mental schools,  if  the  employment  of  teachers  of  high  school 
experience  affords  any  criterion  for  judgment. 

In  conclusion,  the  departmental  grammar  schools  apparently 
approximate  junior  high  school  standards  in  degree  of  depart- 
mentalization and  in  the  use  of  the  project  method  in  prevo- 
cational  work;  but  in  the  use  of  supervised  study  and  teachers 
of  high  school  experience  their  procedure  is  far  less  likely  to 
achieve  junior  high  school  aims  and  standards  of  method.  - 

(,4)     DATA  RELATIVE  TO  GUIDANCE  AND  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  IN  DEPART- 
MENTAL SCHOOLS. 

No.  of  School 

1.  Principal  acts  as  pupil  adviser.    No  systematic  educational  or  vocational 

guidance.    Athletic  and  musical  organizations. 

2.  Pupil  advisory  system.     Incidental  educational  and  vocational  guidance. 

Athletic  organization. 


88       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

3.  No  advisory  system.     Definite  guidance.     Athletic  and  civic  organiza- 

tions. 

4.  Advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    Athletic  organization. 

5.  No  advisory  plan.     No  guidance.     No  extra-class  organizations  below 

grade  nine. 

6.  Room  teacher  adviser.    No  definite  plan  of  guidance.     Literary,  publica- 

tion, scout,  and  student  government  organizations. 

7.  Advisory  plan.     Some  vocational  information.     Athletic,  musical,  and 

social  organizations. 

8.  Advisory  plan.     No  direct  guidance.     Athletic,  literary,  musical,  and 

social  organizations. 

9.  Advisory  plan.   Guidance  thru  history  of  industries.    Athletic  and  musical 

organizations. 

10.  No  data  on  advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    No  data  on  extra-class  organi- 

zations. 

11.  Advisory  plan.     Guidance  thru  manual  training. 

12.  Advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    Athletic  organizations. 

13.  Advisory    plan.      Guidance   thru   community   civics.      Athletic,    civic, 

musical  and  social  organizations. 

14.  Advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    Athletic  and  musical  organizations. 

15.  Advisory  plan.     No  guidance.    Athletic  and  musical  organizations. 

16.  Advisory  plan.     Guidance  thru  manual  training  and  domestic  science. 

Athletic  and  musical  organizations. 

17.  No  advisory  plan.    Some  guidance  by  the  principal,  but  not  definitely 

organized.    Musical  organization. 

18.  Advisory  plan.    Some  guidance  by  the  manual  training  teacher. 

19.  No  advisory  plan.     No  guidance.    Athletic,  civic,  musical,  publication, 

and  student  government  organizations. 

20.  Advisory  plan.     Guidance  thru  the  principal  and  thru  chapel  talks. 

Athletic  and  musical  organizations. 

21.  Advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    Athletic  organizations. 

22.  Room  teacher  adviser.     No  guidance.     No  extra-class  organizations. 

23.  No  data  on  advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    Athletic  organizations. 

24.  Advisory  plan.     No  guidance.     No  data  on  extra-class  organizations. 

25.  No  advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    No  data  on  extra-class  organizations. 

26.  Advisory  plan.    Incidental  guidance.    Athletic  organizations. 

27.  No  advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    No  data  on  extra-class  organizations. 

28.  Advisory  plan.     No  guidance.    Athletic  and  literary  organizations. 

29.  Advisory   plan.      Incidental   guidance.     Athletic,   civic,   and    musical 

organizations. 

30.  Room  teacher  adviser.    No  guidance.    Athletic  organizations. 

31.  Advisory  plan.     No  guidance.     No  data  relative  to  extra-class  organiza- 

tions. 

32.  Advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    No  extra-class  organizations. 

33.  No  data  relative  to  advisory  plan  or  guidance.    Agricultural  and  athletic 

organizations. 

34.  No  advisory  plan.    No  guidance.    Athletic  and  musical  organizations. 

35.  No  data  relative  to  advisory  plan  or  guidance.      Athletic  organizations- 


Departmental  School  Organization  89 

Twenty-five  schools  indicate  provision  for  some  form  of 
pupil  advisory  plan,  six  report  that  they  have  no  such  provision, 
and  four  returned  no  data.  What  specific  plan  is  followed  is 
indicated  in  very  few  cases.  Twenty-one  schools  report  no 
definite  provision  for  educational  or  vocational  guidance ;  7  report 
"incidental,"  "not  systematic,"  "manual  training  and  domestic 
science,"  etc.;  and  5  report  "yes"»  "vocational  information," 
"history  of  industries,"  "community  civics,"  and  "chapel  talks." 
In  two  cases  no  data  were  reported.  With  respect  to  provision 
for  extra-classroom  activities  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  7 
schools  make  no  response;  3  indicate  no  such  organizations  in 
grades  seven  and  eight;  and  25  report  1  or  more  such  organiza- 
tions, the  two  of  most  frequent  occurrence  being  athletics,  in  23 
schools,  and  musical  clubs,  in  13  schools.  Civic  clubs  are  reported 
from  5  schools;  literary  and  social  clubs,  3  each;  publication  and 
student  government,  2  each;  agriculture,  departmental,  and 
scouts,  1  each.  One  school  reports  five  different  organizations; 
3  report  four;  2  report  three;  10  report  two;  9  report  one;  and  3 
report  none.  The  median  number  is  2  and  the  average,  1.9. 

Twenty- two  junior  schools  report  some  form  of  advisory  plan 
as  compared  with  24  departmental  schools,  and  8  indicated  some 
definite  educational  or  vocational  guidance  as  compared  with 
5  departmental  schools.  Neither  group  of  schools  seems  to  have 
made  very  definite  provision  for  pupil  advice  or  guidance.  The 
median  number  of  extra-class  organizations  is  the  same  for  the 
two  types  of  schools,  being  2  in  either  case,  but  the  average 
number  of  organizations  per  school  for  the  junior  type  is  2.64  as 
compared  with  1.9  for  the  departmental  schools. 

There  seems  to  be  very  little  difference  between  the  junior 
and  departmental  schools  with  respect  to  the  above  named  feat- 
ures of  guidance  and  social  organization. 


90      Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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92       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Table  12  should  be  read,  departmental  school  No.  1  is  housed 
in  a  building  separate  from  the  high  school  and  the  elementary 
school,  but  is  very  near  the  high  school  building  and  has  a  few 
lower  grade  pupils  in  the  same  building;  has  a  36  week  school 
year  and  a  40  minute  class  period;  its  teachers  have  on  the 
average  2  years  of  training  beyond  the  high  school  course  and 
10  years  of  teaching  experience,  none  of  its  teachers  are  college 
graduates,  93%  are  women  and  7%  men  teachers,  the  average 
annual  salary  is  $675;  and  very  limited  provision  is  made  for 
the  admission  of  over-age  pupils  regardless  of  previous  scholastic 
attainments. 

In  7  cities  or  towns  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  are  housed 
in  the  high  school  building,  but  in  6  of  these  not  in  the  high  school 
assembly  room.  In  school  No.  6  the  eighth  grade  occupies  the 
high  school  assembly  and  recitation  rooms,  has  several  teachers 
in  common  with  the  high  school,  and  has  opportunity  to  take 
several  high  school  subjects  as  electives.  In  5  other  cities  or  towns 
grades  1  to  12  are  in  the  same  building;  in  6,  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  occupy  a  separate  building;  in  4,  mainly  separate 
but  in  a  building  having  some  lower  grade  pupils;  and  in  13  they 
are  housed  with  the  first  six  grades,  though  often  occupying  an 
entire  floor  of  such  building.  In  23  schools  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  are  separate  from  the  high  school,  and  in  12  they 
are  in  the  same  building.  These  proportions  are  the  reverse  of 
those  among  junior  high  schools  where  25  are  housed  with  the 
high  school  and  10  are  separate  from  it. 

One  schools  has  a  term  of  40  weeks;  1,  38;  27,  36;  1,  34;  and 
5,  32.  The  median  term  is  36  weeks  and  the  average  35.5,  which 
is  .8  week  longer  than  in  the  junior  high  school  group. 

Two  schools  report  class  periods  of  60  minutes  (including 
supervised  study);  5,  50  minutes;  7,  40  minutes;  3,  35  minutes; 
10,  30  minutes;  5,  25  minutes;  2,  22  minutes;  and  1,  20  minutes. 
The  median  is  30  minutes  and  the  average,  35.5.  For  the  junior 
high  school  group  the  median  is  40  min.utes  and  the  average, 
41.4  minutes,  or  the  class  periods  average  8.9  minutes  shorter 
in  the  departmental  schools,  although  the  recitation  time  is 
probably  about  the  same,  the  difference  representing  additional 
time  given  to  supervised  study  in  the  junior  type  school. 

Thirty-four  schools  reported  data  relative  to  teacher  training. 
In  2  of  these  schools  the  average  number  of  years  of  teacher 
training  beyond  the  high  school  is  3  but  less  than  4  years;  in  19, 


Departmental  School  Organization  93 

2  but  less  than  3  years;  and  in  13,  1  but  less  than  2  years.  The 
median  by  schools  is  2.37  years  and  the  average  2.06  years. 
The  median  is  .59  year  less  than  in  the  junior  group  schools,  and 
the  average  .65  year  less.  But  one-ninth  the  junior  schools  have 
teachers  with  an  average  training  of  less  than  2  years,  while 
more  than  one-third  the  departmental  schools  are  below  this 
standard. 

Of  the  34  schools  reporting  data  relative  to  the  term  of 
teaching  experience,  in  7  the  average  is  15  or  more  years;  in  12 
10  but  less  than  15  years;  in  12,  5  but  less  than  10  years;  and  in 
3,  less  than  5  years.  The  median  is  10  years  and  the  average 
10.4  years.  This  is  approximately  2  years  more  than  in  the 
junior  type  schools. 

Data  from  32  schools  relative  to  the  per  cent  of  college  grad- 
uates among  seventh  and  eighth  grade  teachers  show  that  20 
schools  have  none;  3,  more  than  5%  but  less  than  25%;  7,  25% 
but  less  than  50%;  2,  50%  but  less  than  75%;  and  none  more 
than  75%.  The  median  by  schools  is  0%  and  the  average,  12%. 
This  is  decidedly  less  than  for  the  junior  type  schools  where  the 
median  is  41.5%  and  the  average,  43.1%.  Seven-eights  of  the 
junior  type  schools  have  25%  or  more  of  their  teachers  college 
graduates,  while  but  one-fourth  the  departmental  schools  equal 
this  standard. 

Thirty-two  schools  reported  data  relative  to  the  number  of 
men  and  women  teachers  having  any  classes  in  any  seventh  and 
eighth  grade  work.  None  of  these  have  less  than  50%  women 
teachers;  4,  50%  but  less  than  60%;  8,  60%  but  less  than  70%; 
6,  70%  but  less  than  80%;  11,  80%  but  less  than  90%;  and  3, 
90%  but  less  than  100%.  The  median  by  schools  is  75%  and 
the  average  74.5%.  For  men  the  corresponding  figures  are  25% 
and  25.5%.  The  per  cent  of  women  teachers  in  departmental 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  materially  greater  than  in  the 
junior  type  schools,  where  the  corresponding  per  cents  are  60 
and  64  for  women,  and  40  and  36  for  men.  This  difference  may 
be  due  in  part  to  the  large  number  of  very  small  schools  in  the 
junior  group,  in  which  the  per  cent  of  men  teachers  is  invariably 
higher  than  in  the  larger  schools  of  the  same  group. 

Of  the  32  schools  reporting  data  relative  to  the  average  annual 
salaries  of  teachers,  1  pays  less  than  $500;  3,  $500  but  less  than 
$550;  4,  $550  but  less  than  $600;  6,  $600  but  less  than  $650;  8, 
$650  but  less  than  $700;  7,  $700  but  less  than  $750;  3,  $750  but 


94       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

less  than  $800;  and  none  over  $800.  The  median  is  $667  and  the 
average,  $650.  The  corresponding  figures  for  the  junior  type 
schools  are  $720  and  $735,  or  the  average  annual  salary  paid  in 
the  junior  type  schools  is  13%  higher  than  in  the  departmental 
schools. 

Twelve  of  the  30  schools  reporting  on  the  conditions  of  admis- 
sion to  the  departmental  grades,  especially  grade  seven,  indicate 
that  promotion  from  the  next  lower  grade  is  necessary,  but  18 
qualify  this  statement  by  saying  that  they  are  very  liberal  in 
promoting  over-age  pupils  who  are  weak  in  some  subjects,  or 
that  the  general  rule  is  not  adhered  to  strictly  in  exceptional 
cases.  However,  the  number  of  pupils  advanced  irregularly  with- 
out regular  promotion  seems  to  be  insignificant.  In  response  to 
the  question,  "Do  you  enroll  here  over-age  pupils  who  have  not 
completed  the  work  of  the  previous  grade  because  of  the  greater 
benefit  you  think  they  will  receive  from  this  arrangement?"  10 
answer  "no"  and  20  indicate  that  a  few  (usually  none  or  very  few) 
pupils  are  so  advanced.  Apparently  such  pupils  are  advanced 
from  the  next  lower  grade  only  and  are  given  a  conditional  pro- 
motion even  though  very  weak  in  their  previous  work.  It  is  not 
apparent  that  the  conditions  of  admission  are  greatly  different 
from  those  in  the  junior  type  schools.  Aside  from  4  city  schools 
of  the  junior  type,  very,  very  limited  provision  is  made  for  the 
admission  of  over-age  pupils  to  the  seventh  grade  when  deficient 
in  regular  academic  work,  and  when  so  admitted  they  are  general- 
ly compelled  to  carry  the  regular  work  of  the  seventh  grade  in- 
stead of  having  a  special  program  consisting  largely  of  prevoca- 
tional  work. 

SUMMARY  OF  COMPARISONS. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  schools  of  the  junior 
group  offer  on  the  average  but  little  more  work  in  the  practical 
arts  than  do  the  departmental  schools.  By  state  requirement 
the  schools  of  all  types  must  offer  such  work  2  periods  a  week. 
Many  of  the  departmental  schools,  however,  assign  but  30 
minute  periods  to  such  work,  while  schools  of  the  junior  type 
have  from  40  to  60  minute  periods.  The  junior  schools  have 
made  marked  changes  in  the  time  assignment  for  English  and 
have  probably  unified  the  course  more  and  made  it  somewhat 
less  formal.  General  science  is  required  or  elective  in  five-sixths 
the  junior  high  school  eighth  or  ninth  grades,  while  it  is  offered 


Comparison  of  Junior  and  Departmental  Schools  95 

to  a  much  more  limited  extent  in  departmental  schools.  The 
latter  schools  have  introduced  special  work  in  community  civics 
more  widely  than  have  the  junior  schools,  but  such  courses  have 
not  become  the  general  rule  in  either  type  of  school  as  yet. 
Junior  schools  offer  wider  opportunities  for  eighth  grade  pupils 
to  elect  or  carry  subjects  ordinarily  given  in  the  high  school  than 
do  departmental  schools;  they  also  offer  additional  work  in  the 
practical  arts  more  frequently,  and  they  offer  work  in  physical 
training  more  often  although  neither  group  has  made  adequate 
provision  for  physical  education. 

Promotion  by  subject  is  almost  the  universal  practice  in  the 
junior  group  schools,  but  not  even  a  majority  of  the  departmental 
schools  have  yet  adopted  the  practice. 

Frequency  of  promotion,  organization  of  progress  groups, 
provision  for  individual  advancement,  the  degree  of  department- 
alization, and  the  use  of  the  project  plan  in  prevocational  work 
are  not  peculiarly  typical  for  either  group,  but  supervised  study 
and  the  employment  of  teachers  in  grammar  grades  with  high 
school  teaching  experience  are  far  more  common  in  the  junior 
schools.  Differences  relative  to  teacher  adviser  plans  and  social 
organization  are  not  marked  between  schools  of  the  two  groups. 
The  junior  type  schools  have  more  commonly  teachers  of  longer 
training,  more  men  teachers,  and  pay  somewhat  higher  salaries. 


(6)     COMPARISON  OF  JUNIOR  AND   DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS; 
THRU  THE  APPLICATION  OF  REORGANIZATION  STANDARDS. 

As  measured  by  the  most  vital  standards  of  the  reorganiza- 
tion movement,  namely,  subject  modification,  promotion  by 
subject  and  other  provision  for  individual  differences,  supervised 
study  and  other  features  of  improved  method,  provision  for 
social  organization,  and  superior  training  and  qualifications  for 
teachers,  the  junior  high  school  group,  as  a  whole,  has  advanced 
farther  from  traditional  practice  than  has  the  departmental 
group.  However,  it  is  apparent  that  some  schools  claiming 
junior  high  school  organization  are  inferior  in  reorganization  to 
some  of  the  departmental  schools.  To  ascertain  the  extent  to 
which  departmental  schools  have  adopted  the  reorganization 
program  and  may  reasonably  be  classed  with  the  junior  type 
schools,  although  not  claiming  the  name,  I  shall  arbitrarily  apply 
certain  standards  that  have  met  very  general  acceptance  among 


96       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

the  so-called  junior  high  schools,  and  shall  attempt  a  tentative 
weighting  of  the  different  factors  employed  in  order  to  secure 
results  capable  of  quantitative  measurement.  This  weighting  is, 
in  part,  based  upon  the  relative  ranking  of  certain  factors  by  the 
twenty-five  superintendents  and,  in  part,  represents  merely  the 
opinion  of  the  writer.  The  standards  and  their  weighting,  as  I 
shall  subsequently  use  them,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Subjects  of  study  modifications  for  grade  eight  (total  10). 

a.  English  (literature,  composition,  grammar)  5  periods  or  less  per 

week,  2  points;  6  to  8  periods  inclusive,  1  point. 

b.  Civics,  separate  course,  2  points;  special  emphasis  as  part  of  the 

history  course,  1  point. 

c.  General  science,  2  points. 

d.  One  or  more  high  school  electives  or  subjects  open  to  eighth  grade 

pupils,  2  points. 

e.  Practical  arts  in  addition  to  the  state  requirement,  1  point. 

f.  Physical  training,  1  point. 

2.  Provision   for  different   rates  of  advancement    (4   to    7    points). 

g.  Promotion  by  subject,  3  points;  in  part,  2  points, 
h.     Provision  for  individual  advancement,  1  point. 

i.      Homogenous  groups  (cities  of  6,000  and  more),  1  point. 

j.      Differentiated  curricula  (cities  of  20,000  and  more),  2  points. 

3.  Factors  influencing  method  (3  points). 

k.    Supervised  study,  1  point. 

1.      Project  plan  in  prevocational  work,  1  point;  in  part,  ^  point. 

m.   Twenty-five  per  cent  or  more  of  teachers  with  high  school  ex- 
perience, 1  point. 
4     Social  and  advisory  organizations  (3  points). 

n.     Teacher  adviser,  1  point. 

o.     Two  or  more  extra-class  organizations,  1  point. 

p.     Definite  plan  of  educational  or  vocational  guidance,  1  point. 
5.     Miscellaneous  features  (6  points). 

q.    Term  of  36  weeks  or  more,  1  point. 

r.     Teacher  training  2.5  years  or  more  beyond  high  school,  2  points; 
2  years,  1  point. 

s.     Forty  per  cent  or  more  men  teachers,  1  point;  20%,  %  point. 

t.     Salary  of  $700  or  more,  1  point;  $600,  ^  point. 

u.     Definite  provision  for  over-age  pupils,  1  point;  limited,  ^  point. 
The  grand  total  of  all  points  is  from  26  to  29. 


Comparison  of  Junior  and  Departmental  Schools  97 


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98       Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Comparison  of  Junior  and  Departmental  Schools 


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100     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Comparison  of  Junior  and  Departmental  Schools  101 


CHART  1. 

Scoring  of  junior  and  departmental  schools,  based  on  tables  13  and  14. 
Upper  graph,  junior  schools,  lower  graph,  departmental  schools. 
Numbers  on  left  margin,  score. 
Numbers  above  graph  lines,  schools  as  given  in  tables. 

Tables  13  and  14  represent  the  results  of  the  scoring  of  the 
35  junior  high  schools  and  the  35  departmental  schools  on  the 
basis  of  the  above  named  factors.  Four  of  the  junior  type  schools 
score  80%  or  more;  7,  70%  to  79%;  19,  60%  to  69%;  2,  50%  to 
59%;  and  3  below  40%.  Tentatively  it  will  be  assumed  that  any 
school  scoring  below  60%  should  not  be  classed  as  meeting  junior 
high  school  standards.  By  the  same  standards  no  departmental 
school  scores  80%  or  more;  1,  70%  to  79%;  2,  60%  to  69%;  7, 
50%  to  59%;  8,  40%  to  49%  and  17,  below  40%. 

From  this  comparison  it  appears  that  but  3  of  the  depart- 
mental schools  (all  in  cities  of  5,000  or  more  population)  surpass 
the  lowest  5  of  the  junior  type  schools  in  the  features  of  organiza- 
tion just  enumerated,  although  3  other  schools  are  close  to  the 
arbitrarily  chosen  border  line,  and  with  slight  modifications  in 
their  present  organization  could  qualify  by  these  standards. 
Twenty-seven  of  the  junior  schools  surpass  all  but  one  of  the 
departmental  schools,  and  32,  all  but  6.  The  amount  of  over- 
lapping of  the  two  types  of  schools  is  not  as  great  as  is  generally 
assumed,  which  seems  to  indicate  that  the  adoption  of  the  junior 
high  school  name  carries  with  it  certain  standards  of  reorganiza- 
tion which  other  departmental  schools  are  unconscious  of,  or  at 
least,  are  not  attaining. 

The  fact  that  the  junior  high  school  group  have  a  "Q"  of  but 
4.2  as  compared  with  11.5  for  the  departmental  schools,  indicates 
a  much  closer  grouping  of  the  junior  high  schools  about  their 


102     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

central  tendency  than  is  the  case  in  the  departmental  schools. 
The  contrast  is  still  more  marked  when  each  "Q"  is  divided  by 
its  median  to  obtain  the  per  cent  of  variability.  The  variability 
for  the  junior  type  schools  is  .063  while  that  for  departmental 
schools  is  .29,  or  the  departmental  schools  are  nearly  five  times 
as  variable  among  themselves  as  are  the  junior  schools  with 
respect  to  the  features  upon  which  the  rating  is  based. 

This  entire  comparison  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  my 
standards  and  the  weighting  I  have  given  them  are  valid.  Also 
this  method  of  scoring  leaves  out  of  account  fundamental 
features  of  all  school  organization  and  considers  only  those 
features  stressed  in  reorganization.  Thus  the  score  given  is  not 
to  be  considered  as  a  total  efficiency  score,  but  as  a  sum  to  be 
added  to  a  common  fundamental  score  for  achieving  superior 
excellence  along  certain  desirable  lines.  My  choice  of  60%  as  a 
dividing  line  between  junior  and  departmental  schools  is  based 
on  the  distribution  of  schools  of  the  junior  type,  there  being  ap- 
proximately as  many  of  these  below  60%  as  above  80%,  and  I 
have  assumed  that  the  number  of  schools  possessing  a  decidedly 
inferior  organization  should  be  approximately  equal  to  the  num- 
ber possessing  a  superior  organization,  above  80%. 

Many  conscientious  objectors  to  the  junior  high  school  name 
and  program  raise  the  question,  "Why  adopt  a  new  name  and 
make  such  ado  about  nothing  when  departmental  schools  every- 
where are  achieving  the  same  results?"  Are  they  achieving  the 
same  results?  The  foregoing  comparisons  do  not  indicate  that 
they  are.  The  value,  then,  of  the  new  name  lies  in  the  new 
spirit  created  whereby  the  administrator  can  more  easily  secure 
the  introduction  of  new  subjects,  new  and  better  equipment, 
better  teachers,  new  features  of  method  and  social  organization 
under  the  new  than  under  the  old  name  and  organization.  An 
enthusiasm  and  interest  is  created  among  pupils,  teachers 
and  patrons  under  the  new  name  that  is  largely  impossible  under 
the  old.  The  situation  has  in  it  many  of  the  elements  making  for 
success  in  new  resolutions,  conversions,  and  fads  generally;  tra- 
dition having  been  broken  with,  new  types  of  activity  and  ad- 
ministration can  much  more  easily  be  introduced  and  supported. 
Johnston2  has  happily  characterized  the  situation  in  his  state- 
ment, "It  (the  junior  high  school)  has  somehow  fired  our  educa- 
tional imagination,"  which  statement  seems  to  explain  much  of 
the  force  and  success  of  the  new  and  rapidly  growing  reorganiza- 
tion movement. 

»  Johnston,  C.  H.     "The  Junior  High  School."    Ed.  Adm.  &  Sup.  2 :424. 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  103 

2.  SPECIFIC  MEASUREMENT  OF  CERTAIN  CLAIMED  ADVANTAGES 
OR  OBJECTIONS  TO  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

a.     Junior  High  School  Costs. 

One  of  the  chief  objections  that  has  been  advanced  against 
the  reorganization  movement  has  been  its  greater  cost.  At  the 
present  time  common  opinion  seems  to  take  higher  costs  for 
granted  in  the  junior  type  school  than  in  the  traditional  grammar 
grades.  Francis1  states  that  the  junior  high  school  cost  should 
be  about  midway  between  that  of  the  first  six  grades  and  of  the 
senior  high  school.  Phillips  and  Barnes2  state  that  replies  to 
their  inquiry  indicate  that  a  six  year  high  school  organization 
may  be  expected  to  cost  from  10%  to  15%  more  than  the  usual 
two  year  grammar  grades  plus  a  four  year  high  school  plan. 
Briggs3  had  only  30  out  of  157  schools  reply  relative  to  costs, 
but  17  stated  that  the  junior  high  school  cost  more  than  in  the 
first  six  grades,  6  about  the  same,  and  the  remaining  7  gave 
qualified  answers.  Rundlett4 gives  the  cost  under  the  old  organiza- 
tion in  1909-10  as  $33.14  per  pupil  in  grammar  grades  and  as 
$29.28  and  $28.09,  respectively  in  1910-11  and  1911-12  under  the 
new  organization.  He  also  indicates  that  the  average  of  class 
scholarship  marks  was  raised  under  the  new  plan  and  that  33% 
more  work  was  covered  in  Latin,  history,  and  mathematics  in 
junior  high  school  grades.  Bachman,5  in  the  New  York  City 
Survey,  shows  that  in  1911-12  the  intermediate  school  organiza- 
tion of  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  New  York  City  was  costing 
less  than  the  regular  grammar  grade  organization,  largely  due  to 
a  more  economic  use  of  rooms  and  equipment  under  the  former 
type  of  organization.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  New  York 
intermediate  schools  were  not  offering  the  widely  enriched  and 
differentiated  curricula  which  are  associated  with  this  type  of 
school  in  our  larger  cities,  nor  were  they  employing  teachers 
approximating  high  school  standards  of  training.  A  recent 
investigation  by  Briggs,6  not  yet  published,  shows  some  schools 
paying  less  per  capita  for  maintenance  and  operation  in  the 
junior  high  school  than  in  the  first  six  grades  and  in  other  cities 
the  costs  are  more  than  for  the  senior  high  school. 

1  Francis.  J.  H.     "Needed  Reorganizations."    The  Portland,  Ore.,  School  Survey,  p.  191. 
1  Phillips,  E.  M.  and  Barnes.  C.  H.     The  Junior  High  School  Problem.  Bulletin  No.  59,  1916 
Minn.  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 

3  Briggs,  T.  H.     The  Junior  High  School.    Report  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Ed.  1914,  vol.  I. 
p.  135-157. 

4  Rundlett,  Concord,  N.  H.,  School  Reports,  1909  to  1912. 

6  Bachman,  F.  P.     Report  of  Com.  on  School  Inquiry,  N.  Y.  City.  Vol.  I.  pp.  146-148.    1913. 
•  Briggs,  T.  H.     The  Junior  High  School  (an  investigation  inaugurated  in  1917  and  not  yet 
published). 


104     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

This  great  variation  in  costs  may  be  due  to  several  causes, 
many  of  which  are  discussed  later  in  this  section.  Costs  will  be 
low  where  teachers  are  employed  with  qualifications  for  ele- 
mentary school  teaching  only,  where  the  traditional  type  of 
principal  is  employed  who  does  no  supervising,  where  large 
classes  are  the  rule,  where  traditional  rather  than  laboratory  and 
shop  subjects  and  methods  prevail,  where  meager  equipment  is 
used,  and  where  cheaply  constructed  buildings  are  utilized.  In 
a  few  instances  the  junior  high  school  costs  were  more  than  in 
the  senior  high  school  because  of  new  and  more  costly  and  better 
equipped  buildings,  and  because  of  the  introduction  of  more  shop 
and  laboratory  work  with  special  teachers  in  the  junior  high 
school,  while  maintaining  largely  the  traditional  text  book 
courses  in  the  senior  high  school. 

In  all  the  investigations  the  cost  data  have  been  very  meager, 
chiefly  because  school  officials  do  not  keep  their  financial  records 
in  such  form  that  they  can  easily  determine  cost  factors. 

COST  DATA  FOR  INDIANA  SCHOOLS 

What  do  junior  high  school  organizations  cost  in  Indiana  as 
compared  with  the  usual  eight-four  type? 

A  preliminary  inquiry  revealed  the  fact  that  I  should  be 
unable  to  secure  data  from  most  schools  relative  to  detailed 
analyses  of  maintenance  and  operation  other  than  the  cost  of 
instruction  and  supervision  which  could  be  rather  easily  checked 
from  the  salary  list.  Accordingly  I  have  limited  my  cost  statistics 
to  this  phase  of  the  problem. 

My  inquiry  forms  called  for  the  total  annual  salary  account 
for  teachers,  principals  and  supervisors  for  grades  1  to  6,  7  and  8, 
and  9  to  12,  separately,  the  salary  of  each  individual  to  be  dis- 
tributed among  these  three  groups  according  to  the  time  spent 
by  the  teacher  or  supervisor  in  each  of  these  grade  groups.  As 
the  majority  of  schools  failed  to  report  their  average  attendance, 
I  have  used  the  total  enrollment  up  to  and  including  March  for 
the  second  semester  as  the  base  for  computing  the  cost  per  pupil. 
While  the  data  will  not  be  readily  comparable  with  those  of  other 
investigations,  the  method  seems  to  be  a  valid  one  for  comparing 
schools  within  this  study.  The  cost  per  pupil  for  grades  1  to  6 
means  the  total  salary  account  for  teaching  and  supervision 
charged  against  all  these  grades  divided  by  the  total  enrollment 
for  these  grades.  Per  capita  costs  for  the  grammar  grade  and 
high  school  units  are  similarly  computed. 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons 


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106     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  107 


TABLE  16. 
RANGE  OF  COST  DISTRIBUTION 

JR.  HIGH  SCHOOL  DEPT.  SCHOOL  NON-DEP.  SCHOOL 

COST  GRADE  GRADE  GRADE 

LIMITS  1-6          7-8        9-12  1-6          7-8        9-12          1-6          7-8        9-12 

6  to  10 1                                           1 

11  to  15 9           1                       8           1                     11           2 

16  to  20 5          4                    10          5                      4          4 

21  to  25 2          3                      2          9           1           2          4 

26  to  30 1           3           2           2         10           3                       6           1 

31  to  35 2           1          4                      3          5                      2 

36  to  40 13                                  2                                  8 

41  to  45 4          6                      1           5                                  2 

46  to  50 1           2                                  6                      1           1 

51  to  55 42                                                                    2 

56  to  60 1                                             2                                  1 

Over  60 12                                                                       3 

No.  cases..  19        24        21         23         29        24         18         19         18 


TABLE  17. 

COST  PER  PUPIL  FOR  INSTRUCTION  AND  SUPERVISION  IN  CITIES  OF  5,000  AND 
MORE  POPULATION.* 


JUNIOR 

HIGH  SCHOOLS 

DEPARTMENTAL 

SCHOOLS 

CITY 

GRADE 

CITY 

GRADE 

1-6 

7-8 

9-12 

1-6 

7-8 

9-12 

3 

16.70 

18.00 

34.20 

1 

34.90 

4 

15.40 

29.70 

35.00 

,     2 

19.20 

7 

22.90 

23.60 

43.60 

4 

ii!7o 

26.60 

34^30 

10 

27.90 

53.70 

78.60 

6 

15.70 

24.50 

43.50 

16 

15.70 

28.10 

28.10 

9 

17.00 

26.10 

38.10 

20 

14.60 

21.50 

33.80 

11 

22.80 

24.00 

43.40 

21 

32.40 

36.90 

36.90 

12 

18.60 

19.10 

48.20 

22 

57.00 

13 

14.20 

25.90 

24.30 

24 

iiiio 

17.10 

3rio 

14 

20.90 

26.10 

57.50 

25 

52.80 

15 

24.70 

28.20 

30.90 

30 

13.10 

13.10 

37.40 

17 

33.70 

31 

13.60 

27.00 

28.30 

19 

ii!io 

21.10 

33.70 

20 

17.60 

28.80 

35.10 

24 

14  50 

32 

14.90 

25.90 

4s!io 

No  

10 

12 

10 

11 

15 

11 

Average  . 

18.64 

31.54 

39.30 

17.50 

25.24 

39.74 

Median.  . 

15.55 

27.55 

35.95 

17.60 

25.90 

38.10 

Q  

5.77 

17.40 

4.73 

3.39 

3.86 

7.56 

High.... 

32.40 

57.00 

78.60 

24.70 

34.90 

57.50 

Low.  .  .  . 

13.10 

13.10 

28.10 

11.40 

14.50 

24.30 

*  Note: 

All  non-departmental 

schools  are 

in  cities 

of  less  than 

5,000  population.     See 

table  15. 

108     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


TABLE  18. 

COST  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  SUPERVISION  PER  PUPIL  IN  CITIES  OF  LESS  THAN 
5,000  POPULATION. 


JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

DEPARTMENTAL 

SCHOOLS 

CITY 

GRADE 

CITY 

GRADE 

1-6 

7-8 

9-12 

1-6 

7-8 

9-12 

2 

19.00 

41.50 

41.50 

3 

29.20 

42.20 

5 

21.80 

52.60 

52.60 

5 

26!  80 

25.20 

48.60 

6 

49.40 

49.40 

7 

20.20 

30.90 

46.50 

8 

18  '.30 

43.20 

43.20 

8 

17.40 

25.50 

14 

11.50 

31.90 

45.50 

21 

16.90 

17.60 

35!66 

15 

14.90 

65.50 

65.50 

23 

16.90 

23.50 

37.20 

17 

31.00 

53.10 

53.10 

25 

11,10 

41.60 

41.60 

19 

17.60 

42.20 

42.20 

26 

15.10 

31.90 

46.80 

23 

12.20 

19.60 

32.10 

27 

12.30 

18.30 

42.10 

33 

20.60 

21.10 

48.70 

28 

20.50 

20.50 

27.90 

34 

41.00 

41.00 

29 

7.20 

30.00 

34.80 

35 

20.00 

31 

22  10 

28.40 

33 

28.00 

29'.00 

46'.00 

35 

29.10 

29.10 

56.10 

No 

9 

12 

11 

12 

14 

13 

Average  . 

18.43 

40.09 

46.80 

17.96 

26.74 

41.02 

Median.  . 

18.30 

41.85 

45.50 

17.15 

27.75 

42.10 

Q  

4.31 

15.75 

5.72 

4.25 

4.58 

5.94 

High.... 

31.00 

65.50 

65.50 

29.10 

41.60 

56.10 

Low.  .  .  . 

11.50 

19.60 

32.10 

7.20 

17.60 

27.90 

Note:     For  non-departmental  schools  see  table  15. 


TABLE  19. 
COST  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  SUPERVISION  PER  PUPIL  IN  CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOLS 


J  U  N  10  R 

HIGH 

SCHOOLS 

NON-J 

UNIOR 

SCHOOLS 

CITY 

GRADE 

CITY 

GRADE 

1-6 

7-8 

9-12 

1-6 

7-8 

9-12 

2 

19.00 

41.50 

41.50 

2 

14.30 

27.30 

52.60 

5 

21.80 

52.60 

52.60 

8 

14.60 

19.20 

124.00 

6 

49.40 

49.40 

9 

12.50 

17.30 

41.90 

8 

is.  36 

43.20 

43.20 

15 

15.90 

33.30 

95.20 

15 

14.90 

65.50 

65.50 

20 

23.80 

35.80 

51.40 

17 

31.00 

53.10 

53.10 

21 

15.70 

30.40 

40.00 

19 

17.60 

42.20 

42.20 

33* 

28.00 

29.00 

46.00 

34 

41.00 

41.00 

35* 

29.10 

29.10 

56.10 

No 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

Average  . 

17.51 

48.56 

48.56 

19.24 

27.68 

63.40 

Median.  . 

19.00 

46.30 

46.30 

15.80 

29.05 

52.00 

Q  

3.66 

5.80 

5.80 

6.85 

7.05 

26.65 

High.... 

31.00 

65.50 

65.50 

29.10 

35.80 

124.00 

Low  .... 

14.90 

41.00 

41.00 

12.50 

17.30 

40.00 

*  Note:    These  two  schools  are  from  the  departmental  list;  the  remaining  six  are  from  the 
non-departmental  list. 

Tables  17. 18.  and  19  are  to  be  read  the  same  as  table  15. 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  109 

Tables  15  to  19  set  forth  the  data  for  the  cost  of  instruction 
and  supervision  for  such  schools  as  reported  both  cost  and  enroll- 
ment data,  about  two-thirds  the  whole  number  participating  in 
the  investigation.  The  schools  have  been  divided  into  three 
groups  for  comparison,  junior  high  schools,  departmental  schools, 
and  non-departmental  schools,  all  the  latter  having,  however, 
a  measure  of  departmental  teaching  in  special  subjects. 

Table  15  should  be  read:  Instruction  and  supervision  costs 
school  number  2  of  the  junior  high  school  group  $19  per  pupil  in 
the  first  six  grades,  $41.50  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades, 
and  $41.50  in  grades  nine  to  twelve  inclusive  (a  6-6  school  with 
grades  7  to  12  under  the  same  teaching  staff).  School  number  2 
of  the  departmental  group  makes  no  report  for  the  first  six  grades 
or  grades  nine  to  twelve,  but  has  a  per  capita  cost  of  $19.20  in 
grades  seven  and  eight,  etc. 

Because  of  the  wide  variation  of  a  few  schools  the  median 
cost  would  seem  to  be  a  better  measure  of  central  tendency  in  this 
instance  than  the  average,  although  I  have  computed  the  latter 
also.  The  median  will  be  used  in  the  following  discussions  unless 
otherwise  indicated. 

From  table  15  it  appears  that  the  median  cost  per  pupil  for 
the  first  six  grades  is  for  the  junior  high  school  group  $16.70j  for 
the  departmental  group,  $17.00;  and  for  the  non-departmental 
group,  $T5.15  a  year.  For  grades  seven  arid  eight  the  corre- 
sponding costs  are  $34.40,  $25.90  and  $24.90  respectively ;  while 
for  grades  nine  to  twelve  they  are  $41.50,  $41.85,  and  $40.55 
respectively.  The  only  marked  variation  between  the  three 
groups  is  in  grades  seven  and  eight  where  the  junior  high  school 
type  costs  33%  more  than  in  the  departmental  schools.  The 
ratio  between  high  and  low  for  any  one  grade  group  varies 
from  two  and  one-third  to  one  for  the  high  school  costs  of  the 
departmental  schools  to  five  to  one  for  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grade  costs  in  the  junior  high  school  group.  A  "Q"  of  15.75,  or 
nearly  one-half  its  median,  for  costs  in  grades  seven  and  eight 
of  the  junior  high  schools  indicates  a  uniformly  wide  deviation 
from  the  central  tendency  for  these  schools.  "Q"  represents  the 
difference  between  the  first  and  third  quartile  points  of  the  dis- 
tribution divided  by  two,  or  it  is  approximately  the  distance  we 
must  go  either  side  the  central  tendency  to  include  the  middle 
50%  of  our  distribution. 


110     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Table  16  represents  a  distribution  of  the  number  of  schools  of 
each  group  for  each  $5  unit  of  cost  from  $5  up  to  $60  and  more, 
and  should  be  read:  In  the  junior  high  school  group  in  the  first 
six  grades  nine  schools  have  a  cost  per  pupil  of  $1 1  to  $15  inclusive ; 
5  schools,  $16  to  $20  inclusive,  etc. 

Table  15  does  not  enable  us  to  get  at  a  close  analysis  of  the 
cost  conditions,  for  we  have  here  represented  schools  in  cities  of 
35,000  population  and  others  located  at  a  country  cross-roads 
three  miles  from  any  village,  and  the  costs  due  to  different  causes, 
as  size  of  school  or  differentiated  curricula,  combine  so  as  to 
give  unsatisfactory  comparisons  due  to  the  non-homogenous 
grouping  of  the  schools  to  be  compared.  To  make  these  com- 
parisons more  significant  I  have  re  tabulated  the  data  of  table  15, 
showing  in  table  17  costs  in  schools  in  cities  of  5,000  or  more 
population,  and  in  table  18  costs  in  schools  in  towns  and  villages 
of  less  than  5,000  population. 

This  should  yield  more  satisfactory  comparisons,  for  schools 
relatively  alike  in  size  and  other  conditions  are  grouped  together. 

Table  17,  median  results,  shows  that  for  schools  in  cities  of 
5,000  and  more  population  the  pupil  cost  is  higher  in  both  the 
first  six  grades  and  in  the  high  school  in  the  departmental  group, 
$17.60  and  $38.10  respectively  as  compared  with  $15.55  and 
$35.95  in  the  junior  type  schools,  and  that  the  difference  in  costs 
for  grades  seven  and  eight  is  $1.65  per  pupil,  or  6%  higher  for 
the  junior  group.  The  deviation  or  "Q"  for  grades  seven  and 
eight  of  the  junior  type  schools  is  very  high,  17.4,  which  indicates 
lack  of  standardization  in  costs  here  as  compared  with  costs 
in  the  grammar  grades  of  other  type  schools.  So  far  as  concerns 
instruction  and  supervision  only  the  junior  type  school  does  not 
appear  to  add  very  materially  to  the  cost  per  pupil  of  the  usual 
departmental  school  for  cities  of  this  size,  and  the  added  cost  per 
pupil  in  grades,  seven  and  eight  is  more  than  offset  by  the  lower 
high  school  costs  in  the  junior  type  schools. 

Table  18  shows  a  slightly  higher  cost  for  the  junior  high  school 
type  in  both  the  first  six  grades  and  in  the  high  school,  and  a 
decidedly  higher  cost,  50.8%  higher,  in  grades  seven  and  eight 
in  the  schools  of  less  than  5,000  population,  as  measured  by 
group  medians.  This  is  no  doubt  to  be  explained  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  the  junior  type  schools 
all  the  teachers  from  grades  seven  to  twelve  are  regular  high 
school  teachers  and  receive  high  school  salaries,  and  that  prin- 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  111 

cipals  and  special  teachers  devote  more  time  to  these  grades  in 
this  type  of  school,  and  especially  that  these  small  junior  high 
schools  are  the  smallest  schools  on  my  list,  far  too  small  for  eco- 
nomic class  grouping.  If  average  costs  be  compared  the  relative 
standing  of  the  two  types  of  schools  remains  unchanged.  Again 
the  variability  or  deviation  in  the  grammar  grade  costs  of  the 
junior  type  schools  is  high,  amounting  to  approximately  40%  of 
the  average  cost.  The  cost  for  the  various  grade  groups  in  the 
non-departmental  schools  (table  15)  is  slightly  lower  in  each  case 
than  for  the  corresponding  unit  in  the  departmental  schools 
(table  18). 

As  eight  of  the  small  schools  of  the  junior  high  school  group 
are  of  the  consolidated  rural  type,  I  have  selected  for  comparison 
eight  other  consolidated  schools,  all  I  have  data  on,  from  the 
departmental  and  non-departmental  groups.  Table  19  shows 
the  costs  for  these  schools.  The  seventh  and  eighth  grade  costs 
are,  for  the  junior  schools,  $46.30  and,  for  the  non-junior  schools 
$29.05.  Again  the  junior  type  school  costs  more  in  the  first 
six  grades,  $19  as  compared  with  $15.80  in  non- junior  schools 
(due  to  very  small  enrollments),  59%  more  in  grades  seven  and 
eight  (partly  due  to  small  enrollments  in  these  junior  type  schools), 
but  11%  less  in  the  senior  high  school  grades,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  these  junior  type  schools  have  a  much  smaller  average 
enrollment  than  have  the  others.  If  averages  be  used  the  non- 
junior  type  schools  have  still  higher  costs  in  grades  nine  to  twelve 
inclusive. 

This  suggests  that  these  results  are  not  to  be  taken  at  their 
face  value  in  ascertaining  the  real  cost  conditions,  but  rather 
there  should  be  an  investigation  of  the  costs  covering  the  entire 
six  upper  grades  in  both  groups  of  schools.  It  is  the  total  cost 
of  the  school  system  that  the  taxpayer  is  concerned  with,  and 
any  plan  of  grouping  whereby  one  department  may  be  made  to 
have  a  low  per  capita  cost  does  not  relieve  the  situation  if  some 
other  department  is  thereby  made  more  expensive.  It  may  be 
that  our  high  cost  in  grades  seven  and  eight  in  the  junior  type 
schools  is  fully  counterbalanced  by  lower  costs  in  the  senior 
high  school,  due  to  a  more  economic  use  of  the  staff  in  the  six- 
six  type  school. 

Eight  schools  of  the  six-six  type  and  eight  of  the  eight-four 
type,  indicated  in  table  19,  reported  complete  cost  and  enrollment 
data  for  grades  seven  to  twelve  inclusive.  The  average  enrollment 


112     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

for  grades  seven  to  twelve  in  the  junior  type  schools  is  70,  and 
the  average  annual  cost  of  instruction,  $3250.  For  the  eight 
non- junior  schools  of  the  consolidated  group  the  corresponding 
figures  are,  average  enrollment,  96,  and  average  annual  cost 
$4180.  From  this  we  get  a  per  capita  cost  for  grades  seven  to 
twelve  of  $46.43  for  the  junior  type  schools  and  $43.54  for  the 
same  grades  in  the  non-junior  schools.  The  6%  higher  cost  in 
the  junior  type  schools  is  probably  more  than  accounted  for  by 
their  smaller  enrollment,  which  is  far  below  the  economic  effi- 
ciency point,  and  they  also  have  as  advantages  for  the  extra 
outlay  a  teaching  force  with  a  higher  average  amount  of  training 
and  a  somewhat  richer  curriculum  offering.  From  these  facts  it 
appears  that  a  junior  high  school  type  of  organization  can  be 
maintained  in  the  small  consolidated  school  at  approximately  the 
same  cost  as  is  required  for  the  eight- four  plan;  that  high  costs 
are  not  primarily  due  to  the  "junior"  feature  of  the  organization 
but  rather  to  the  "small"  factor. 

From  data  in  my  possession  I  have  estimated  that  these  eight 
junior  high  schools  of  the  consolidated  type  could  return  to  the 
eight-four  plan  by  dismissing  one  high  school  teacher  and  em- 
ploying an  additional  elementary  school  teacher  at  a  saving  of 
$160  a  year  for  the  entire  six  upper  grades,  and  that  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  costs  would  then  be  $18.33  per  pupil  per  year 
and  the  high  school  costs  $63.50  per  pupil.  If  we  consider  grades 
seven  and  eight  only  our  present  cost  of  $46.30  per  pupil  is  153% 
more  than  it  would  be  under  the  stated  conditions  of  the  eight- 
four  plan  with  a  seventh  and  eighth  grade  cost  of  $18.33.  This 
seems  to  be  an  enormous  difference,  but  if  we  include  the  high 
school  with  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  present  total  cost 
of  $3250  is  only  5%  more  than  it  would  be  after  effecting  a  saving 
of  $160.  The  apparently  great  saving  in  grades  seven  and  eight 
would  be  nearly  offest  by  the  increased  cost  in  grades  nine  to 
twelve,  due  to  a  less  economic  utilization  of  the  high  school  teach- 
ing staff  with  a  smaller  number  of  pupils. 

Under  the  non-junior  plan  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils 
in  rural  consolidated  schools  are  receiving  these  advantages: 
non-departmental  teaching  for  the  most  part,  promotion  by 
grade,  no  supervised  study,  no  men  teachers  or  a  man  teacher 
two  periods  a  week  in  manual  training  or  agriculture  only,  an 
elementary  school  type  of  discipline,  little  or  no  participation 
in  high  school  athletics  and  social  activities,  teachers  with  from 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons 


113 


one  to  two  years  of  normal  or  college  training,  a  course  of  study 
and  methods  based  largely  upon  a  deadening  repetition  of  what 
has  already  been  explored  (arithmetic  5  periods  a  week,  history  5, 
geography-physiology  5  or  more  periods,  formal  English  10  to  15, 
manual  or  household  arts  or  agriculture  2,  drawing  1,  and  music  1), 
and  a  non-stimulating  elementary  school  atmosphere. 

Under  their  present  junior  type  of  organization  they  have 
these  advantages:  departmental  teaching,  promotion  by  subject 
supervised  study,  40%  men  teachers  in  certain  subjects,  both 
vocational  and  academic,  a  high  school  type  of  discipline,  partic- 
ipation in  high  school  athletics  and  social  activities,  teachers 
with  an  average  of  more  than  three  years  of  college  and  normal 
training,  a  course  of  study  designed  for  a  wider  exploration  of 
pupil  interests  and  fields  of  knowledge  (arithmetic  4  periods  a 
week,  history  4,  general  science  4,  revised  English  4,  German  4, 
household  or  manual  arts  or  agriculture  2,  drawing  1,  music  1), 
and  the  spirit  and  stimulus  of  a  high  school  atmosphere. 


CHART  2. 

Per  capita  cost  ofi  nstruction 
and  supervision,  based  on  tables 
17,  18  and  19. 

"a"  schools  in  cities  of  5,000 
and  more. 

*b"  schools  in  cities  less  than 
5,000. 

"c"  consolidated  rural  schools. 

Numbers  in  left  margin,  cost 
in  dollars. 

junior  schools. 

departmental  or  non- 
junior  schools. 

Upper  pair  of  lines,  high 
school  costs. 

Middle  pair  of  lines,  7th  and 
8th  grade  costs. 

Lower  pair  of  lines,  costs  in 
grades  1  to  6. 


30- 


1 14     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

The  present  junior-senior  type  of  organization  in  consolidated 
schools  costs  $2.29  per  pupil  more  than  it  would  for  the  same 
grades  under  the  old  eight-four  plan  (a  saving  of  $160  divided  by 
70,  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  average  six  year  high  school). 
The  question  for  the  school  authorities  to  decide  is,  is  it  worth 
the  increased  outlay  to  secure  these  advantages?  From  the  fore- 
going analyses  it  appears  that  in  both  the  larger  city  and  the  smal- 
ler consolidated  schools,  considered  separately,  the  junior- 
senior  high  school  cost  doea._Qot_ejcceed  the  eight-four  plan  cost 
for  the  upper  six  grades  by  more  than  6%,  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  compensating  advantages  more  than  offset  the  additional 
outlay.  For  village  and  small  city  junior  schools  the  per  capita 
cost  for  the  upper  six  grades  is  approximately  15%  to  20%  more 
than  for  departmental  schools. 

FURTHER  ANALYSIS  OF  COST  FACTORS. 

1.    FACTORS  WHICH  TEND  TO  INCREASE  COSTS. 

a.     Teacher  Conditions. 

(1)  The  reorganized  school  has  teachers  of  superior  training. 
Even  in  those  schools  where  teachers  of  high  school  qualifications 
are  not  employed  in  the  junior  high  school,  the  best  of  the 
elementary  teachers  are  chosen.     Data  presented  in  another 
section  of  this  study  show  that  on  the  average  junior  high  school 
teachers  have  had  approximately  six-tenths  of  a  year  more 
training  than  teachers  in  grades  seven  and  eight  in  non- junior 
high  schools,  and  that  43%  of  them  on  the  average  are  college 
graduates  as  compared  with  12%  for  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  in  the  usual  grammar  school  of  the  departmental  type. 
Necessarily  this  superior  training  will  result  in  higher  salaries. 
My  data  show  that  junior  high  school  teachers  receive  on  the 
average  $85  more  a  year  than  do  teachers  in  the  grammar  grades 
of  departmental  schools. 

(2)  The  junior  high  school  has  more  men  teachers.     Our 
data  relative  to  teachers  show  that  in  the  median  school  40% 
of  junior  high  school  teachers  are  men  as  compared  with  25% 
in  the  grammar  grades  of  the  non-junior  type  school.   The  average 
salary  of  men  teachers  in  Indiana  high  schools  is  at  least  $100  a 
year  more  than  that  of  women  teachers,  and  the  use  of  more  men 
teachers  in  grammar  grade  instruction  will  increase  costs  pro- 
portionately. 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  115 

(3)  The  junior  high  school,  especially  in  the  larger  schools, 
has  more  teachers  and  supervisors  of  special  subjects,  which  in 
large  part  constitute  the  differentiated  curricula. 

Well  trained  teachers  in  vocational  and  special  subjects 
command  higher  salaries  as  a  rule  than  do  teachers  of  academic 
high  school  subjectspanTi  especially  do  these  special  teachers, 
who  are  members  of  the  high  school  teaching  staff,  except  in  a 
very  few  of  our  Indiana  schools,  receive  salaries  decidedly  in 
advance  of  the  salaries  paid  to  grammar  grade  teachers  of  read- 
ing, arithmetic  and  the  like. 

b.    Conditions  arising  out  of  varied  and  enriched  subjects  of  study 
and  differentiated  curricula. 

(1)  Any  increase  in  the  number  of  subjects  taught  in  the 
school  will  call  for  an  enlargeoT  teaching  st'ah1  and  an  increased 


A  comparison  of  the  number  of  teachers  in  the  small  Indiana 
high  schools  now  and  ten  years  ago  will  reveal  the  fact  that  four 
or  six  teachers  are  now  employed  where  formerly  there  were  two 
and  three  only,  and  this  in  schools  having  not  to  exceed  an  enroll- 
ment of  50  or  60  pupils.  The  number  of  subjects  has  been  in- 
creased a'nd  the  ratio  of  teachers  to  pupils  has  markedly  in- 
creased, thus  adding  to  the  cost  per  pupil. 

(2)  Every  differentiation  tends  to  divide  the  student  popu- 
lation into  more  groups,  and  this,  except  in  the  larger  schools, 
will  result  in  decreasing  the  size  of  classes  and  in  increasing  the 
per  capita  costs. 

For  example,  a  small  school  may  have  30  pupils  in  the  eighth 
grade.  In  arithmetic  and  the  other  common  subjects  they  con- 
stitute one  class  group,  but  in  the  practical  arts  they  divide 
into  two  groups  and  inevitably  the  cost  is  increased.  To  make 
my  point  clearer,  I  shall  cite  an  illustration  from  a  previous 
study  I  have  made  relative  to  high  school  costs.7  In  each  of  two 
different  schools  the  drawing  teacher  receives  an  annual  salary 
of  $810,  but  in  school  "a"  the  average  class  size  in  drawing  is 
9.5  pupils  and  in  school  "b"  35  pupils,  with  equal  credit  allowed 
per  hour  of  work  and  with  equal  teaching  time  for  the  two  teachers. 
The  cost  per  credit  in  school  "a"  is  $10.65  while  in  "b"  it  is  but 
$2.88.  All  conditions  except  class  size  are  the  same.  Funda- 

»  Childs,  H.  G.     "Cost  of  Instruction  in  Indiana  High  Schools."     Bui.  of  Third  Annaul 
Conference  on  Educational  Measurements.  Indiana  University,  1917.  p.  133. 


116     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

mentally,  class  size  is  the  most  important  factor  in  cost  produc- 
tion in  instruction1.  In  the  larger  schools  having  several  sections 
for  each  grade,  the  boys  and  girls  from  two  ordinary  sections  can 
be  grouped  for  work  in  practical  arts  and  thus  keep  all  classes  of 
approximately  standard  size,  but  this  is  impossible  in  the  small 
school  and  is  seldom  done  in  the  larger. 

(3)  The  practical  arts  subjects,  which  are  being  much  stressed 
in  junior  high  schools,  are  commonly  assigned  double  the  time 
of  the  academic  subjects  for  the  same  credit.    This  is  universal 
in  high  school  practice. 

With  double  time  given  to  such  class  groups  teachers  can 
teach  but  half  as  many  different  classes  during  the  day  as  in 
academic  subjects,  and  hence  the  cost  of  instruction  is  increased. 
My  study  of  instructional  costs,  just  referred  to,  shows  (page  137) 
that  in  the  median  size  high  schools  manual  and  household  arts 
instruction  cost  $7.10  and  $7.23  respectively  per  credit,  while 
history  and  mathematics  cost  but  $3.15  and  $3.51  respec- 
tively. As  the  salaries  of  the  two  groups  of  teachers  were  about 
the  same,  the  double  costs  are  clearly  due  to  a  combination  of 
smaller  classes  and  double  time  for  the  practical  arts  group. 

(4)  It  is  customary  to  have  smaller  class  groups  in  special 
and  vocational  subjects  than  in  academic  subjects,  even  in  the 
larger  schools,  and  this  still  further  adds  to  the  cost. 

Reference  to  my  study  just  cited  (page  147)  shows  for  cities 
of  20,000  and  more  population  a  class  size  of  10.2,  14.8,  13.9, 
22.1,  20.9,  20.6  respectively  in  drawing,  household  arts,  manual 
arts,  English,  mathematics,  and  science.  In  practically  all  cases 
the  academic  subject  groups  are  from  50%  to  100%  larger. 

(5)  The  increase  in  the  number  of  classes  referred  to  above, 
together  with  demands  for  rooms  for  varied  types  of  work,  calls 
for  an  increase  in  the  total  number  of  class  rooms,  which  in  turn 
demands  an  increased  outlay  for  buildings. 

(6)  The  introduction  of  practical  arts  and  vocational  courses 
in  the  junior  high  school,  or  any  other  school,  calls  for  large 
expenditures  for  laboratory^and  shop  equipment.    In  those  schools 
which  utilize  a  common  building  and  common  equipment  for 
the  junior  and  senior  high  schools,  the  expense  may  not  be  greatly 
increased  by  the  junior  organization,  but  rather  such  combination 
favors  a  better  utilization  of  facilities  already  provided  for  the 
high  school.     All  schools  in  Indiana,  whether  they  adopt  the 
junior  high  school  name  and  habits  or  not,  must  require  manual 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  117 

and  dmoestic  arts  or  agriculture  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
grades.  Hence  the  cost  for  the  junior  type  school  need  be  little 
different  from  that  of  other  schools,  except  where  wide  differentia- 
tion and  numerous  courses  are  provided. 

(7)  It  is  claimed  that  the  introduction  of  enriched  and 
vocational  subjects  in  the  junior  high  school  will  and  does  in- 
crease interest  among  pupils  in  school  work  and  result  in  the 
longer  retention  of  pupils  for  a  longer  period  of  years  in  school. 

This  is  given  as  one  of  the  chief  of  the  junior  high  school  aims, 
and,  except  in  the  small  schools,  costs  will  increase  to  the  extent 
that  it  is  realized.  Data  that  I  give  in  another  section  of  this 
investigation  show  that  certain  Indiana  schools,  during  the  past 
five  years  have  increased  by  as  much  as  18%  the  number  of 
pupils  who  are  retined  thru  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  In 
the  large  school  this  added  retained  list  will  add  to  the  total  cost 
for  the  system  by  necessitating  more  classes  but  not  to  the  per 
capita  cost,  but  in  the  small  schools,  whose  class  groups  are 
below  an  economic  standard  size,  the  total  cost  will  remain  the 
same  while  the  per  capita  cost  will  be  actually  decreased. 

If  a  trained  citizenship  is  the  measure  of  educational  values, 
then  high  retention  and  adequate  training  are  to  be  sought;  if, 
however,  low  money  cost  is  the  objective,  the  best  school  will 
be  the  one  which  eliminates  all  its  pupils  earliest. 

c.     Conditions  arising  out  of  miscellaneous  administrative 
practices. 

(1)  In  the  junior  high  school  the  tendency  is  to  lengthen  all 
class  periods  to  approximate  high  school  standards. 

This,  while  valuable  for  the  pupil,  reduces  the  number  of 
classes  taught  by  each  teacher  in  a  day  and  hence  adds  to  the 
cost  of  instruction.  My  data  show  that  the  usual  eight-four 
type  of  grammar  school  has  a  class  period  of  25  to  30  minutes  in 
length,  while  those  of  the  junior  type  have  from  40  to  60  minute 
periods.  The  average  difference  is  about  10  minutes.  The  total 
length  of  the  school  day  in  the  two  types  of  schools  is  about  the 
same. 

(2)  Supervised  study  appears  to  be  an  almost  universal 
feature  of  practice  in  Indiana  junior  high  schools.    This  is  one  of 
the  chief  contributing  factors  for  the  lengthened  class  period 
just  mentioned.    The  old  type  grammar  school  had  and  has  ten  or 


118     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

eleven  30  minute  periods  without  directed  class  study.  The  usual 
high  school  period  is  40  minutes.  With  the  introduction  of  the 
junior  type  school  the  tendency  is  to  divide  the  day  into  six 
60  minute  periods.  This  practice,  while  enhancing  the  value  of 
the  instruction,  necessarily  costs  more. 

(3)  As   the   junior   school    approximates    the   high    school 
standards  there  has  been  a  marked  tendency  to  reduce  the  size 
of  classes  in  academic  subjects  from  30  or  more  to  20  or  25  pupils. 

This  is  no  doubt  in  keeping  with  the  ideals  of  a  more  adequate 
adaptation  of  work  to  pupil  needs,  but  it  necessarily  results  in 
added  costs. 

(4)  The  departmental  type  of  instruction,  which  is  an  almost 
universal  feature  of  junior  high  school  organization,  will  result 
in  a  poor  coordination  of  teaching  effort  by  the  various  teachers 
unless  the  work  is  unified  thru  close  and  thorough  supervision 
of  a  type  not  demanded  under  the  older  organization.     In  the 
small  school  system  the  change  will  probably  call  for  no  additional 
expense,  and  in  the  larger  system  the  centralization  of  the  upper 
grades  may  result  in  a  saving  even  with  improved  supervision, 
if  the  supervisory  expense  of  the  ward  buildings  containing  the 
first  six  grades  is  reduced ;  if  not,  then  the  concentration  will  call 
for  additional  supervision  of  a  more  expensive  quality. 

(5)  Retardation  and  repetition  of  work  are  prolific  sources 
of  increasedcostsT^ 

The  junior  school,  however,  with  its  greater  attention  to  the 
individual  and  its  provision  for  varied  types  of  work  seeks  to 
reduce  this  repetition,  and  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  successful 
it  will  reduce  rather  than  increase  costs. 

^rayer^  estimates  that  10%  of  all  seventh  grade  pupils  and 
8%  of  an  eighth  grade  pupils  are  repeating  work  previously 
taken.  This  would  give  an  average  of  at  least  9%  for  the  two 
grades.  Ayers9  states  that  in  the  average  city  elementary  school 
the  average  number  of  years  to  reach  the  point  where  pupils  are 
is  111%  of  the  normal  time  that  should  be  required  without 
failure  and  repetition.  Or,  he  says,  that  the  cost  is  11%  greater 
than  the  per  capita  cost  should  be. 

An  examination  of  certain  data  in  this  study  relative  to 
retention  will  show  that  in  some  schools  the  per  cent  of  progress 
thru  grades  seven  and  eight  is  not  more  than  80%  of  what  it 

s  Strayer,  G.  D.  Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  U.  S.  Bur.  Ed.  bulletin 
No.  5,  1911.  p.  136. 

•  Ayers,  L.  P.  Money  Cost  of  Repeating  vs.  Money  Saving  thru  Acceleration.  Am. 
Sch.  Board  Jr.  Jan.  1912.  pp.  13,  14. 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  119 

normally  should  be,  and  the  showing  would  probably  be  much 
worse  if  pupils  did  not  stop  the  repeating  process  by  leaving 
school  as  soon  as  permitted  by  law.  The  Butte  Survey  Report10 
shows  an  eighth  grade  non-promotion  of  10.3%  and  an  elimina- 
tion of  11.3%.  In  a  previous  study11  on  the  per  cent  of  failures 
in  high  school  subjects,  I  have  shown  that  certain  Indiana  high 
schools  are  failing  as  high  as  59%  of  all  boys  taking  first  year 
German  and  41%  of  all  boys  in  first  year  Latin  and  39%  of  all 
boys  in  first  term  English. 

Specifically,  the  above  facts  on  failure  and  repeating  mean 
this,  that  failure  of  promotion  leads  to  retardation  or  elimination ; 
if  the  pupil  leaves  he  is  not  receiving  the  training  the  community 
intended  him  to  have ;  and  if  he  repeats,  either  classes  will  be  over- 
crowded or  new  classes  must  be  organized.  In  the  latter  case 
the  school  budget  must  be  enlarged  to  provide  more  building 
room  and  a  larger  teaching  staff. 

In  the  small  school  with  its  small  classes  and  possibility  of 
much  attention  to  individuals,  retardation  and  failure  should  be 
prevented  in  the  maximum  degree.  Also  a  small  amount  of 
repetition  here  would  not  increase  costs  because  the  class  size 
permits  of  the  repeater  being  carried  without  additional  sections 
being  organized. 

2.     FACTORS  WHICH  TEND  TO  REDUCE  COSTS. 

The  junior  high  school  program  is  not  one  of  retrenchment 
but  rather  one  of  expansion  and  enrichment.  Such  a  policy  in- 
variably calls  for  added  rather  than  lessened  expense.  However, 
there  are  certain  features  of  administration  where  the  junior 
type  of  organization  may  effect  certain  economies. 

(a)  Thru  centralization  of  seventh  and  eighth  grades  at  cen- 
tral buildings,  not  only  can  greater  variety  and  differentiation 
be  provided,  but  at  the  same  time  a  standard  class  size  may  be 
maintained  which  shall  make  for  economy. 

(1)  Where  these  grades  are  scattered  in  outlying  buildings 
there  will  necessarily  result  many  small  classes  and  some  over- 
crowded ones,  which  may  be  eliminated  at  a  central  plant  with 
a  saving  in  the  total  teaching  force,  other  conditions  remaining 
the  same. 

10  Report  of  the  Survey  of  the  School  System  of  Butte,  Mont.  p.  27. 

»  Childs,  H.  G.     "Per  Cent  of  Failures  in  High  Schools."     Bulletin  of  the  Third  Con- 
ference on  Educational  Measurements,  Indiana  University,  1917.    pp.  188-191. 


120     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

(2)  It  has  been  advocated  that  such  centralization  makes 
possible  a  saving  in  supervisory  costs,  but  as  I  have  previously 
stated,  it  appears  to  me  that  such  centralization  will  tend  to 
increase  such  cost  by  providing  a  better  type  of  supervision. 

(3)  Without  doubt  such  centralization  will  reduce  enormous- 
ly the  cost  of  shop  and  laboratory  equipment  over  what  would 
be  the  case  if  such  facilities  were  provided  for  every  elementary 
school  building  and  then  only  partially  utilized. 

(4)  To  the  extent  that  centralization  prevents  idle  equip- 
ment and  unused  rooms  for  much  of  the  time,  it  reduces  costs  by 
requiring  fewer  total  rooms  and  even  buildings.   And  to  the  extent 
that  there  may  be  a  saving  in  the  number  of  rooms  and  buildings, 
there  will  be  a  saving  in  heating,  lighting,  and  janitor  service 
and  other  factors  in  up-keep. 

(b)  A  constantly  maintained  policy  of  elimination  will  ulti- 
mately result  in  a  saving  in  the  grammar  grades  and  high  school 
costs,  because  the  main  factor  making  for  increased  costs,  the 
pupil,  will  have  been  removed.    Such  a  policy  would  result  in 
fewer  buildings,  fewer  teachers,  less  equipment  and  all  the  various 
factors  that  make  up  the  modern  school.    As  I  have  previously 
indicated,  however,  the  junior  high  school  is  seeking  to  prevent 
elimination  and   to  increase  retention. 

(c)  Prevention  of  failure,  repetition  and    retardation    will 
reduce  costs  as  compared  with  present  conditions. 

SUMMARY. 

Opinion  seems  to  be  varied  relative  to  junior  high  school  costs, 
apparently  due  to  lack  of  accurate  cost  data  and  to  variable 
aims  and  organization,  some  officials  having  cost  saving  as  their 
dominant  purpose,  while  others  are  seeking  an  enriched  educa- 
tional program  regardless  of  cost. 

The  data  for  the  Indiana  junior  high  schools  indicate  that 
such  organization  costs  about  6%  more  for  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  in  the  larger  schools  and  6%  more  for  the  upper 
six  grades  combined  in  small  consolidated  schools  than  does  the 
ordinary  grammar  grade-high  school  organization  for  the  same 
size  of  school,  and  from  15%  to  20%  more  in  small  city  junior 
high  schools  in  the  upper  six  grades  than  in  non-junior  schools 
in  cities  of  corresponding  size.  Reference  to  programs  of  study 
in  schools  of  the  various  types  indicates  that  the  junior  high  school 


Junior  High  School  Costs  and  Comparisons  121 

group,  on  the  average,  are  providing  a  more  varied  type  of 
educational  program  and  have  a  teaching  force  which  has  had  a 
superior  training  to  teachers  in  grammar  grades  in  other  types 
of  organization. 

A  summary  of  other  factors  relative  to  junior  high  school 
costs  indicates  that  on  the  whole  we  may  expect  them  to  be 
greater  because  of  teachers  with  superior  training,  more  men 
teachers,  more  teachers  of  special  and  vocational  subjects,  a 
more  varied  and  enriched  program  of  studies,  differentiated 
curricula  and  smaller  class  groups,  more  shop  and  laboratory 
work  with  half  credit  value  per  unit  of  time,  lengthened  class 
periods  and  supervised  study,  better  supervision,  longer  reten- 
tion of  pupils  in  school,  demand  for  more  room  to  accommo- 
date the  new  types  of  work,  and  demands  for  more  elaborate 
and  expensive  equipment. 

The  chief  economies  of  this  type  of  organization  will  come 
thru  concentration  of  seventh  and  eighth  grades  at  a  central 
plant,  utilization  of  a  common  teaching  staff  for  grades  seven  to 
twelve  in  many  schools,  and  a  reduction  in  failure,  retardation, 
and  repetition  of  work. 

The  junior  high  school  movement  seeks  to  raise  grammar 
grade  work  to  the  high  school  level  by  departmentalized  methods 
of  instruction,  smaller  classes,  teachers  with  superior  training 
and  experience,  superior  facilities  and  equipment,  and,  most 
important  of  all,  by  enriched  and  differentiated  courses  of  study 
and  curricula.  This  must  necessarily  cost  more  than  the  tra- 
ditional school  training.  To  establish  a  junior  high  schools  calls 
for  the  consideration  of  relative  values.  One  of  my  correspon- 
dents writes:  "The  junior  high  school  costs  more,  but  that  is  no 
objection,  for  it  is  worth  more." 


122     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

b.     Comparative  Measures  of  School  Achievement. 

One  argument  frequently  urged  against  the  junior  high  school 
is  that  if  the  new  studies  and  activities  advocated  are  put  into 
practice  many  elements  of  the  present  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
work,  long  considered  of  fundamental  importance  in  training  for 
a  common  citizenship  and  daily  utility,  will  have  to  be  slighted  or 
omitted  altogether.  Such  arguments  have  been  leveled  especially 
against  the  introduction  of  differentiated  courses  in  industrial 
arts,  foreign  language  and  the  like. 

Both  Bagley  and  Coffman  argue  against  any  considerable 
differentiation  in  the  grammar  grades.  Bagley1  says  that  ele- 
mentary education  should  provide  "a  basis  of  common  feeling 
and  common  thought  and  common  aspiration  which  is  absolutely 
essential  to  an  effective  democracy."  He  says  that  if  we  must 
have  differentiation  to  prevent  elimination,  then  have  it;  but  he 
ascribes  elimination  to  other  preventable  causes.  Coffman2 
urges  "a  curriculum  consisting  of  minimum  essentials — a  curri- 
culum consisting  of  those  great  facts  and  principles,  which  all 
should  be  expected  to  acquire  within  the  limits  of  their  respective 
capacities."  With  Bagley  he  argues  for  a  uniform  curriculum  but 
differentiated  methods  to  suit  the  individual  child  or  group. 

In  the  light  of  these  and  other  similar  objections  I  have 
attempted  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  certain  schools  that  have 
radically  modified  their  programs  of  study  for  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  are  able  to  show  a  comparatively  creditable  achieve- 
ment in  certain  subjects,  notably  English  and  mathematics,  which 
are  generally  classed  among  the  necessary  common  elements  re- 
ferred to  as  compared  with  another  group  of  schools  whose  pro- 
grams show  them  to  be  devoting  their  time  chiefly  to  these  saving 
elements. 

For  this  purpose  certain  standard  tests  were  administered  in 
the  eighth  grades  of  twenty-one,  out  of  a  possible  twenty-four 
consolidated  rural  and  village  high  schools  in  two  counties,  which 
I  shall  designate  as  "A"  and  "B".  These  schools  are  in  every- 
thing, except  their  programs  of  study,  apparently  much  alike. 
Both  counties  are  strictly  agricultural,  no  one  of  these  schools  is 
in  a  town  of  over  1,200  population,  and  the  school  systems  of 
both  counties  are  considered  to  be  among  the  best  in  Indiana. 

i  Bagley,  W.  C.     The  Six-six  Plan.    School  &  Home  Education.    34:3-5. 
1  Coffman,  L.  D.     Minimum  Essentials  vs.  Differentiated  Courses  of  Study  in  Seventh  and 
Eighth  Grades.    N.  E.  A.  Proc.  1916.    p.  953. 


Measures  of  School  Achievement  123 


COMPARISON  OF  CONDITIONS  IN  SCHOOLS  "A"   AND   "B" 
(GRADE  8). 

Items  of  comparison  Co.  "A".          Co.  "5". 
Program  of  studies  (periods  a  week) : 

Reading  or  literature 2 .  5. 

Grammar 1 .  4 . 

Composition 1 .  1 . 

Spelling incidental  2 . 5 

Writing 0.  2.5 

Arithmetic 4 .  5 . 

History 4 .  5 . 

Geography,  physiology,  hygiene 0 .  7 . 

General  science .' .  .  4 .  0 . 

German 4 .  0 . 

Agricultcre  or  manual  training 2 .  2 . 

Domestic  science 2 .  2 . 

Drawing 1.  1.5 

Music 1.  1.5 

Time  distribution  in  minutes: 

Length  of  recitation  periods 25 .  25 . 

Length  of  supervised  study   periods 15.  0. 

Weekly  time  to  forma1  reading  recitation . .  50.  125 . 

Weekly   time  to  grammar-composition...  50.  125. 

Weekly  time  to  spelling incidental  62 . 5 

Weekly  time  to  arithmetic 100 .  125  . 

Per  cent  of  total  time  to  reading 8.3  13.5 

Per  cent  of  total  time  to  spelling 0.  6.75 

Per  cent  of  total  time  to  arithmetic.  ...  16.7  13.5 

Per  cent  of  time  to  foreign  languages 16.7  0 . 

Per  cent  of  time  to  new  or  special  subjects. .  50 . 0  13.5 

County  "A"  schools  have  been  working  on  this  schedule  for 
two  years  so  that  present  eighth  grades  have  not  had  the  tradi- 
tional amount  of  time  for  English  but  have  substituted  German 
for  one-half  the  time  usually  given  to  the  vernacular. 

Probably  all  will  agree  that  English  language  and  literature 
and  arithmetic  are  fundamentally  important  subjects  of  study 
containing  essential  elements  to  be  incorporated  in  the  education 
of  all  children,  and  that  pupils  ought  to  acquire  a  reasonable 
proficiency  in  them.  "A"  schools  have  transferred  much  time 
from  English  to  German,  and  if  common  elements  are  neglected, 
the  field  of  English  should  be  conspicuous  for  low  achievement. 


124     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

The  tests  given  were  the  Woody  Arithmetic  Series  B,  Multi- 
plication Scale;3  Ayers  Spelling  Scale4  (first  25  words  column  T) ; 
Thorndike  Reading  Scale,  Alpha  2,  part  II;5  and  the  Thorndike 
Visual  Vocabulary  Scale,  A  2  x.6 

The  cooperation  of  the  county  superintendents  and  the  school 
principals  was  hearty  and  cordial,  and  uniform  directions  for 
the  administration  of  the  tests  were  sent  with  the  tests.  These 
tests  were  given  in  the  various  schools  on  March  13th  and  14th, 
1917,  and  all  the  test  papers  were  forwarded  to  me  at  once  by 
the  principals.  All  scoring  on  the  reading  and  vocabulary  tests 
was  done  by  the  writer,  and  that  of  the  arithmetic  and  spelling 
directly  under  my  supervision,  and  has  been  rechecked  to  make 
sure  of  accuracy  and  uniformity  in  scoring. 

»  Woody,  C.  The  Measurement  of  Some  Achievements  in  Arithmetic.  Teachers'  College 
Contributions  to  Education,  No.  80.  1916. 

«  Ayers,  L.  P.  Measuring  Scale  for  Ability  in  Spelling.  Sage  Foundation.  New  York, 
N.  Y. 

«  Thorndike,  E.  L.  An  Improved  Scale  for  Measuring  Ability  in  Reading.  Teachers' 
College  Record,  Nov.  1915.  p.  31. 

•  Thorndike,  E.  L.  Measurement  of  Achievement  in  Reading,  Word  Knowledge.  Teachers 
College  Record,  Nov.  1916.  p.  430. 


Measures  of  School  Achievement 


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126     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 
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Measures  of  School  Achievement  127 

Tables  20  and  21  show  the  comparative  results  for  the  spelling 
test,  and  should  be  read:  in  county  "A"  school  No.  1  gave  the 
test  to  14  eighth  grade  pupils,  of  whom  1  spelled  7  words  cor- 
rectly; 1,  10;  2,  15;  1,  18;  1,  20;  3,  21;  1,  22;  1,  23;  1,  24;  and  2,  25. 
The  average  score  for  school  No.  1  is  19.1  words,  and  the  average 
per  cent  of  correct  spellings  is  76.4.  Of  the  10  schools  from  county 
"A"  participating  in  some  of  the  tests,  but  8  sent  in  spelling  re- 
turns. 

The  per  cent  of  correct  spellings  is  determined  by  multiplying 
the  average  score  by  4,  since  25  words  constituted  the  list,  and 
this  multiplied  by  4  gives  100,  or  a  perfect  score.  The  average 
of  all  individual  pupil  scores  for  county  "A"  is  64  per  cent  and 
for  county  "B"  the  corresponding  score  is  78  per  cent  of  correct 
spellings.  The  results  are  uniformly  better  for  county  "B"  but 
in  both  counties  the  results  are  far  below  the  Ayers'  standard  of 
88  per  cent  of  correct  spellings  for  eighth  grade  pupils.  On  the 
basis  of  school  averages,  "A"  schools  score  but  81.3%  as  high  as 
"B". 

If  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  eighth  grade  pupils  should 
be  able  to  spell  correctly  such  words  as  the  Ayers'  T  column 
(guess,  circular,  argument,  volume,  organize,  and  the  like),  then 
county  "A"  schools  are  deficient  in  their  provision  for  efficient 
spelling.  On  consulting  the  time  assignment  in  the  program  of 
woik  for  the  "A"  schools,  spelling  does  not  appear  in  the  list  of 
subjects  taught.  "B"  schools  give  62.5  minutes  weekly  to  spelling 
and  make  a  much  higher  score  on  the  test.  "A"  schools  have 
apparently  slighted  spelling,  and  the  test  results  would  indicate 
that  additional  time  could  be  profitably  assigned  to  this  subject 
since  other  schools  that  give  definite  time  to  spelling  secure 
noticeably  better  results.  Perhaps  an  additional  40  minute 
period  weekly  should  be  assigned  spelling  by  "A"  schools  or  its 
equivalent  in  distributed  shorter  periods. 

The  "Q"  (3rd  quartile  minus  1st  quartile  score  divided  by  2) 
for  "A"  schools  is  7  and  for  "B"  schools,  3.45.  This  indicates 
that  regular  class  work  in  spelling  keeps  the  results  in  "B" 
schools  much  more  uniform  than  in  "A"  schools  where  there  is 
wide  variation  from  the  central  tendency,  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  some  schools  give  some  spelling  incidentally  in  connec- 
tion with  other  school  work  while  others  do  not. 


128     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

(2)    READING,  UNDERSTANDING  OF  SENTENCES. 

It  was  thought  that  if  there  was  definite  value  in  daily  formal 
reading  or  a  weakness  in  ability  to  read  understandingly  because 
of  giving  little  time  to  formal  work  in  reading  and  literatuie  a 
test  by  the  Thorndike  reading  scale,  alpha  2,  part  II,  should 
make  this  apparent. 

This  scale  consists  of  a  series  of  prose  paragraphs  of  different 
and  known  degrees  of  difficulty,  and  the  ability  measured  by 
the  test,  according  to  Thorndike,  is  that  of  getting  the  message 
carried  by  a  continuous  passage.  Or  it  is  the  ability  to  read 
silently  and  understand  the  given  passages.  The  pupil  reads  the 
paragraph  and  answers,  in  writing,  questions  relating  to  it  and  so 
worded  as  to  demand  a  minimum  of  ability  in  expression  ii» 
indicating  the  interpretation  of  the  reading. 

TABLE  22. 
THORNDIKE  READING  TEST  RESULTS,  COUNTY  "A '. 


No.  OF 

No.  OF  ERRORS  FOR  EACH  DIFFICULTY              SCORE  FOR  80% 

SCHOOL 

PUPILS 

7 

8 

8%                    9         CORRECT  RESULT 

1 

15 

22 

54 

46 

66 

6.95 

2 

9 

11 

34 

22 

35 

7.14 

3 

17 

21 

63 

56 

74 

7.13 

4 

8 

7 

27 

28 

26 

7.46 

5 

13 

12 

48 

39 

48 

7.41 

6 

11 

14 

40 

27 

54 

7.10 

7 

16 

22 

47 

44 

68 

7.02 

8 

11 

20 

33 

33 

50 

6.70 

9 

8 

13 

33 

29 

35 

6.84 

10 

15 

28 

60 

45 

68 

6.67 

Total  . 

123 

170 

439 

369 

524 

7.01 

School  average 

7  04 

O.. 

.25 

TABLE  23. 
THORNDIKE  READING  TEST  RESULTS,  COUNTY  "B". 


No.  OF 

No.  OF  ERRORS  FOR  EACH  DIFFICULTY 

SCORE  FOR  80% 

SCHOOL 

PUPILS 

7 

8 

8%                    9         CORRECT  RESULT 

1 

11 

9 

47 

25 

29 

7.52 

2 

13 

18 

51 

41 

58 

7.01 

3 

31 

46 

118 

84 

139 

6.94 

4 

14 

13 

40 

44 

53 

7.40 

5 

25 

18 

78 

72 

104 

7.39 

6 

22 

33 

63 

61 

89 

6.88 

7 

23 

28 

98 

73 

103 

7.14 

8 

10 

8 

29 

24 

37 

7.40 

9 

18 

3 

53 

50 

69 

7.25 

10 

23 

37 

62 

73 

88 

6.85 

11 

15 

8 

34 

47 

62 

7.60 

Total  . 

205 

221 

673 

594 

831 

7.26 

School  3. 

vpra  CTP 

7  22 

Q.. 

.25 

Measures  of  School  Achievement  129 

Tables  22  and  23  show  the  comparative  results,  and  should 
be  read:  in  school  No.  1  of  group  "A",  15  pupils  were  tested  in 
reading;  they  made  22  errors  in  difficulty  7;  54  errors  in  difficulty  8; 
46,  in  difficulty  &%',  66,  in  difficulty  9;  and  they  could  read  ma- 
terial of  6.95  difficulty  with  80%  efficiency.  The  method  of 
determining  the  difficulty  at  which  80%  correct  results  are 
achieved  is  that  described  by  Thorndike  in  the  reference  given 
above.  The  degree  of  difficulty  at  which  80%  correct  responses 
were  given  by  the  pupils  is,  for  schools  of  county  "A"  (school 
average)  7.04  and  for  county  "B"  7.22.  The  "A"  schools  are 
therefore  about  2J^%  less  efficient  than  "B"  schools,  that  is, 
they  can  read  with  80%  correctness  material  that  is  about  2J/£% 
less  difficult.  Thorndike  estimates  that  eighth  grade  pupils 
should  make  a  score  of  approximately  7.5  and  seventh  grade 
pupils,  7.  The  average  score  for  18  Indiana  schools  in  grade 
eight  is  9.7 

Our  results  show  "A"  schools  slightly  inferior  to  "B"  schools 
in  ability  to  read  and  interpret  the  material  of  the  Thorndike 
tests.  Are  we  warranted  in  assuming  that  the  superiority  of  the 
"B"  schools  is  due  to  the  extra  time  they  give  to  formal  reading 
over  that  of  the  "A"  schools?  There  seem  to  be  four  important 
factors  to  be  taken  into  consideration;  first,  do  these  tests  ade- 
quately measure  reading  ability?  Second,  granting  that  addi- 
tional time  given  to  formal  reading  will  improve  the  results  in 
this  case,  will  the  slight  improvement  necessary  to  equalize  the 
results  in  these  two  groups  of  schools  warrant  the  outlay  of  70 
minutes  additional  time  weekly?  Third,  if  additional  time  were 
given,  are  we  sure  the  results  would  improve?  And  fourth,  where 
do  pupils  acquire  their  ability  to  read  silently  and  to  interpret 
what  they  read?  No  doubt  the  formal  reading  develops  this 
ability  somewhat,  but  their  reading  in  various  other  school  sub- 
jects and  miscellaneous  reading  is  probably  far  more  extensive 
than  the  special  work  of  the  reading  period,  and  the  accuracy 
of  reading  and  interpretation  will  depend  upon  the  excellence 
of  teaching  in  all  subjects,  upon  the  degree  to  which  teachers 
compel  their  pupils  to  read  carefully  and  thoughtfully  the  lessons 
assigned.  The  schools  of  both  counties  are  considerably  below 
eighth  grade  standards  and  should  probably  stress  somewhat  more 
the  power  to  read  and  interpret  the  printed  page,  but  it  is  not 
apparent  that  adding  time  to  the  formal  reading  period  will 
achieve  the  desired  results. 

'  Haggerty,  M.  E.    The  Ability  to  Read.    Ind.  University  Studies.    No.  34.  1917.    p.  14. 


130     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Assuming  that  important  aims  of  reading  are  to  produce 
ability  in  recognizing  the  words  read  and  in  interpreting  their 
meaning,  and  assuming  that  this  alpha  test  adequately  measures 
such  ability,  the  data  of  tables  22  and  23  show  conclusively  that 
the  eighth  grades  in  "A"  schools  achieve  more  than  97%  of  the 
efficiency  of  the  eighth  grades  in  "B"  schools  with  an  expenditure 
of  40%  of  the  time  given  by  "B"  schools  to  formal  reading.  Or 
stated  differently,  "A"  schools  have  lost  practically  nothing  in 
silent  reading  efficiency  by  giving  one-half  or  more  of  the  usual 
English  time  to  foreign  language. 

In  both  groups  of  schools  the  time  limit  for  the  test  was  fixed 
at  30  minutes  and  this  may  have  been  rather  too  short  a  period 
for  this  test.  If  so  the  results  in  both  groups  would  tend  to  drop 
below  the  Thorndike  norm  if  we  consider  all  responses  given, 
but  by  the  Thorndike  method  of  scoring,  that  difficulty  is  taken 
as  the  score  at  which  the  pupil  makes  20%  errors,  and  as  this 
invariably  fell  for  these  schools  in  difficulties  7  or  8,  the  length 
of  the  time  would  hardly  affect  the  result  as  all  pupils  had  time  to 
go  beyond  difficulty  8.  In  fact,  most  pupils  seem  to  have  at- 
tempted practically  all  the  exercises  of  the  tests,  which  would 
indicate  sufficient  time.  Then,  too,  it  is  comparative  scores  we 
are  seeking,  and  not  necessarily  high  scores  compared  with  other 
schools  at  another  time  and  place. 

A  "Q"  of  .25  means  that  in  50%  of  these  schools  the  variation 
from  the  central  tendency  is  less  than  3J^%  of  the  central  ten- 
dency. This  shows  uniform  results  in  all  school  of  each  group  as 
measured  by  this  test.  This  close  grouping  of  the  scores  for  both 
groups  of  schools,  in  spite  of  the  wide  time  variation  between 
the  two  groups  assigned  to  formal  reading,  indicates  that  the 
cause  of  the  uniformity  must  lie  outside  the  time  element. 

(3)  VISUAL  VOCABULARY  TEST. 

According  to  Thorndike,  "the  obvious  purpose  of  these  scales 
is  to  measure  how  hard  words  a  pupil  can  read  in  the  sense  of 
understanding  their  meaning  well  enough  to  classify  them  under 
the  proper  heading,  as  an  animal,  a  flower,  something  about  time," 
etc.8  The  ability  to  recognize  printed  words  and  to  have  meaning 
for  them  in  sentences  constitutes  the  essence  of  reading.  If  extra 
time,  over  that  of  the  "A"  schools,  given  to  formal  reading,  will 
improve  silent  reading  ability  markedly,  it  should  be  apparent 
in  the  results  of  either  the  previous  test  or  this  one  or  both  as 
applied  to  the  "B"  schools. 

8  Thorndike,  E.  L.     "The  Measurement  of  Achievement  in  Reading,  Word  Knowledge." 
Teachers'  College  Record.    Nov.  1916.    p.  430. 


Measures  of  School  Achievement 


131 


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132     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Measures  of  School  Achievement  133 

Tables  24  and  25  show  the  comparative  results  of  the  vocabu- 
lary tests,  and  should  be  read:  in  school  No.  1  of  county  "A" 
15  pupils  were  tested,  3  errors  were  made  in  difficulty  4;  7,  in 
difficulty  4.5 ;  10,  in  difficulty  5 ;  etc. ;  and  the  average  difficulty  at 
which  these  pupils  had  20%  errors  or  80%  efficiency  is  7.2.  For 
"A"  schools  the  average  for  all  pupils  is  6.9  and  for  "B"  schools 
7.1.  "B"  schools  have  a  superiority  as  measured  by  this  test 
of  slightly  less  than  3%.  The  small  values  for  Q  indicate  a  close 
grouping  of  the  schools  about  their  central  group  tendencies, 
that  is,  50%  of  the  schools  vary  from  the  median  by  less  than 
than  6%  of  its  amount  for  the  junior  or  "A"  schools.  When  the 
papers  are  scored  by  the  Thorndike  method  of  line  averages,  the 
average  for  "A"  schools  is  7.9  and  for  "B"  schools,  8.2.  As  in 
the  previous  test  the  close  grouping  of  the  scores  about  a  common 
central  tendency  (7)  indicates  that  the  uniformity  is  due  to  some 
other  factor  than  the  time  distribution  for  English  in  the  two 
groups  of  schools,  for  this  is  2J^  times  as  much  in  the  "B"  schools 
as  in  the  "A"  schools.  The  superiority  in  the  "B"  score  is  about 
two  words  on  the  list  of  130  words  in  the  whole  test  series.  Even 
this  small  difference  may  be  due,  in  part,  to  differences  in  time 
allotment  to  formal  English,  but  we  should  be  hardly  warranted 
in  advising  a  150%  increase  in  reading  time  to  secure  a  3%  im- 
proved in  efficiency  as  measured  by  this  test. 


134     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Measures  of  School  Achievement 


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136     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Tables  26  and  27  show  the  comparative  results  for  the  multi- 
plication test,  and  should  be  read:  in  county  "A"  13  pupils  of 
school  No.  1  wrote  the  test,  of  whom  1  solved  13  problems  cor- 
rectly; 2,  15;  1,  16;  2,  17;  1,  18;  5,  19;  and  1,  20;  with  an  average 
of  17.4.  The  average  of  all  individual  scores  in  county  "A"  is 
15.4  and  in  "B",  15.2.  The  average  of  the  school  averages  is 
15.1.  The  Q  in  each  group  is  small  and  indicates  a  uniform  dis- 
tribution near  the  central  tendency  of  achievement  in  all  the 
schools  of  each  group.  The  differences  in  these  two  sets  of  scores 
are  slight  and  show  a  slight  superiority  in  the  "A"  schools.  The 
differences  in  the  amount  of  time  given  to  class  work  in  arith- 
metic in  the  various  schools  of  the  two  counties  are  also  not 
great,  being  in  "A"  schools  from  100  to  120  minutes  a  week  and 
in  "B"  schools  125  minutes.  Neither  group  of  schools  equals 
the  Woody  standard  score  of  18  for  the  eighth  grade.  The  fact 
that  most  of  these  pupils  are  unaccustomed  to  taking  tests  of 
this  sort  may  have  been  responsible,  in  part,  for  the  low  scores, 
or  it  may  be  that  neither  system  is  emphasizing  drills  in  funda- 
mental processes  in  the  grammar  grades,  and  that  pupils  do  not 
acquire  and  keep  up  a  high  standard  of  proficiency  in  them. 
It  would  probably  be  best  for  these  schools  to  assume  that  they 
are  devoting  sufficient  time  to  arithmetic  and  to  experiment  with 
a  better  distribution  of  the  time  within  the  subject  and  to  formu- 
late more  definitely  just  what  objectives  they  are  working  for 
before  allotting  more  time  to  the  subject. 

Haggerty9  found  that  there  was  little  correlation  between 
excellence  in  arithmetic  scores  by  the  Courtis  standard  tests  and 
the  time  devoted  to  arithmetic  in  the  various  schools. 

As  a  result  of  this  test  we  conclude  that  the  marked  change 
in  program  emphasis  by  the  schools  of  county  "A"  has  not  caused 
any  deterioration  in  arithmetic  achievement  as  compared  with 
the  schools  of  county  "B"  which  still  give  their  major  emphasis 
to  the  traditional  subjects. 

SUMMARY. 

To  summarize  briefly,  the  schools  of  county  "A"  show  approx- 
imately the  same  quality  of  achievement  in  arithmetic,  reading 
for  understanding  of  sentences,  and  in  visual  vocabulary  recogni- 
tion as  do  the  schools  of  county  "B".  In  spelling,  which  is  more 
dependent  on  formal  drill  for  its  results  than  is  reading,  they 

•  Haggerty,  M.  E.    Arithmetic.    Indiana  University  Studies.    No.  27.   1914. 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  137 

are  decidedly  inferior,  and  probably  need  to  devote  more  time 
specifically  to  securing  spelling  efficiency.  Contrast  with  the 
"B"  schools,  which  give  more  than  double  the  "A"  time  to  read- 
ing and  other  phases  of  formal  English,  does  not  give  convincing 
proof  that  an  increase  in  time  for  formal  English  in  the  "A" 
schools  would  be  spent  with  profit.  They  are  probably  receiving 
other  values  of  various  kinds  thru  the  study  of  German  that  more 
than  counterbalance  any  that  have  been  lost.  The  limited 
evidences  of  all  these  comparative  tests  do  not  offer  any  con- 
vincing proof  that,  even  when  one-half  to  three-fifths  the  usual 
time  is  taken  from  the  chief  of  our  "common  elements",  there 
has  been  any  marked  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  achievement 
as  compared  with  other  schools  devoting  much  more  time  to  this 
work  and  less  to  new  subjects.  In  the  above  evaluation,  "as 
measured  by  these  tests,"  should  be  understood. 

c.    The  Measurement  of  Retention  Thru  Grammar  Grades  and 

High  School. 

(1)     GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

One  of  the  chief  advantages  claimed  for  the  junior  high  school 
type  of  organization  is  that  it  retains  pupils  longer  in  school  than 
do  other  forms  of  grammar  grade  organization.  For  fifteen  years 
the  claim  has  been  made  by  practically  every  advocate  of  re- 
organization, but  the  statistical  evidence  supporting  the  claim 
has  not  been  of  a  convincing  sort,  and  for  the  most  part  there 
has  been  no  evidence  offered  other  than  mere  opinion. 

Without  doubt  principals  and  superintendents  who  have 
introduced  the  junior  high  school  type  of  organization  have 
assumed  that  the  increasing  grammar  grade  and  high  school  en- 
rollments of  the  past  few  years  have  been  due  to  this  new  organiza- 
tion, without  considering  the  fact  that  other  schools  on  the  old 
eight-four  plan  of  organization  and  that  schools  without  even 
departmental  organization  have  had  equally  great  increases  in 
enrollments. 

In  the  report  of  his  investigation  in  1914,  Briggs1  states  that 
107  principals  of  junior  high  schools  declare  that  junior  high 
school  organization  retains  pupils  better  than  the  old  organiza- 
tion; 2,  that  it  does  not;  and  3  say  they  don't  know. 

»  Briggs,  T.  H.     The  Junior  High  School.    Report  of  U.  S.  Com'r  of  Ed.  1914.    Vol.  I.  pp. 
142  and  if. 


138     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

In  response  to  his  inquiry  relative  to  the  longer  retention  in 
school  of  pupils  in  the  junior  high  school,  Bingaman2  received  91 
affirmative  replies,  4  negative,  and  7  indicating  doubt. 

A  Los  Angeles  report3  for  1913-14  indicates  that  the  average 
enrollment  in  grades  seven  to  nine  from  1897  to  1903  was  13.7% 
of  the  total  school  enrollment;  17.2%  in  1904  to  1911 ;  and  20.1%, 
1912  to  1914.  The  junior  high  school  organization  went  into  effect 
in  1911.  As  the  increase  in  the  enrollments  was  as  great  in  the 
period  immediately  preceding  1911  as  in  the  one  following  it, 
these  figures  do  not  seem  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  the 
junior  high  school  organization  was  responsible  for  the  improve- 
ment. 

Moreover  the  data  cited  by  Briggs  from  the  Berkley  schools 
to  the  effect  that  under  the  junior  high  school  organization 
94.73%  of  those  completing  the  eighth  grade  enter  the  ninth 
proves  nothing  unless  we  know  what  the  conditions  were  very 
shortly  before  the  introduction  of  the  reorganization  movement. 
Fifteen  years  ago  the  writer  was  connected  with  a  school  that 
regularly  carried  from  95%  to  100%  of  its  eighth  grade  pupils 
into  the  ninth  grade,  and  that  with  non-departmental  teaching, 
promotion  by  grade,  and  with  no  manual  training,  domestic 
science  or  the  other  prevocational  arts  which  are  common  sub- 
jects in  the  junior  high  school  of  the  present  time.  This  school 
still  maintains  a  high  record  of  retention  in  the  grammar  grades 
and  between  the  elementary  and  high  schools,  and  it  has  intro- 
duced manual  training,  domestic  science,  agriculture,  promotion 
by  subject,  and  various  other  features  of  the  reorganized  program. 
If  the  present  superintendent  has  not  consulted  past  retention 
records  he  may  be  harboring  the  delusion  that  a  95%  retention 
between  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  is  entirely  due  to  his  intro- 
duction of  the  practical  arts  or  to  the  assuming  of  the  junior 
high  school  name. 

The  data  cited  by  Briggs  from  Grand  Rapids,  which  indicate 
a  10%  higher  ninth  grade  enrollment  from  eighth  grade  junior 
high  school  pupils  than  from  eighth  grade  grammar  school  pupils 
appears  to  be  significant;  but  if  eighth  grade  graduates  had  to 
attend  high  school  farther  from  home  than  the  grammar  school 
and  also  change  to  an  unfamiliar  environment  while  eighth  grade 
graduates  of  the  junior  high  school  continued  at  the  same  building 

s  Bingaman,  C.  C.     A  Report  on  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  Schools  of  the  U.  S.  1915. 
»  The  Intermediate  Schools  of  Los  Angeles.    El.  Sch.  Jr.  15:361-377. 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  139 

this  10%  increase  in  favor  of  the  junior  high  school  may  easily 
be  due  to  "distance  to  travel"  rather  than  to  "junior  high  school." 
The  gain  of  28%  reported  in  the  per  cent  of  eighth  grade  grad- 
uates entering  the  ninth  at  Evansville,  Indiana,  between  1912 
and  1914,  reported  by  Briggs  in  the  reference  just  cited,  must  be 
considered  in  the  light  of  facts  submitted  in  January,  1917,  by 
the  present  superintendent  who,  in  a  personal  letter,  says,  relative 
to  the  retention  of  pupils,  that  the  object  of  placing  eighth  grade 
pupils  with  the  senior  high  school  was  to  prevent  their  dropping 
out  of  school  when  they  finished  the  eighth  grade.  He  further 
states  that  it  accomplished  this  to  a  large  degree ;  that  the  pupils 
did  not  drop  out  after  completing  the  eighth  grade,  but  rather 
after  finishing  the  seventh.  Later  he  adds:  "The  sum  of  the 
pupils  enrolled  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  in  1916  was  exactly 
the  same  as  that  enrolled  in  the  same  grades  in  1909  before  the 
building  of  the  present  junior  high  school  and  the  inauguration 
of  our  present  scheme."  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  city 
has  had  a  very  considerable  growth  during  the  past  ten  years. 

The  data  submitted  by  Douglass4  relative  to  elimination  and 
retardation  are  very  inconclusive.  Corresponding  data  should 
have  been  collected  from  a  large  number  of  non- junior  high  schools 
at  the  same  time  and  have  been  presented  for  comparison. 
Douglass'  comparisons  between  his  own  data  on  elimination,  col- 
lected in  1916,  and  that  of  Thorndike,  published  in  1907,  are 
valueless  for  the  purpose  as  vast  changes  have  occurred  during 
the  nine  year  interval  in  both  enrollments  and  elimination. 
Numerous  opinions  of  superintendents  and  principals  of  junior 
high  schools  are  quoted  which  are  not  substantiated  by  any 
statistical  evidence.  His  figures  relative  to  enrollments  do  not 
take  into  account  population  changes,  nor  do  they  take  into 
account  the  fact  that  schools  in  large  and  small  cities  operate 
under  vastly  different  conditions  relative  to  attracting  and  hold- 
ing pupils  and  that  their  data  should  be  tabulated  separately 
if  they  are  to  reveal  significant  facts.  Furthermore  his  data 
relative  to  retardation  in  junior  high  schools  do  not  take  inco 
account  the  fact  that  the  conditions,  good  or  bad,  of  over-ageness 
in  the  junior  or  senior  high  school  may  be,  and  probably  are, 
largely  due  to  conditions  in  grades  1  to  6  rather  than  in  t<he 
junior  high  school.  Information  relative  to  the  rate  of  progress 
thru  the  junior  high  school  is  what  is  desired  rather  than  a 

4  Douglass,  A.  A.     The  Junior  High  School.     XVth  Year  Book  of  National  Society  for 
Study  of  Ed.  1916,  part  III.    pp.  101-113. 


140     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

statement  of  retardation  or  acceleration  without  regard  to  what 
unit  of  the  school  system  is  responsible.  Also  comparisons  of 
junior  and  senior  high  school  enrollments  are  of  less  significance 
as  measures  of  retention  than  are  comparisons  of  both  with  the 
enrollment  in  grades  1  to  6  combined,  which  represents  for  the 
most  part  the  school  population  of  compulsory  age. 


(2)    DATA  FROM  INDIANA  SCHOOLS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  RETEN- 
TION PROBLEM. 

a.    Retention  as  measured  by  enrollments. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  facts  relative  to  retention  in  Indiana 
schools  data  of  two  types  have  been  collected  and  tabulated. 
I  shall  first  present  enrollment  data  for  grades  1  to  6,  7,  8,  9  and 
10  to  12  from  the  majority  of  schools  included  in  this  investiga- 
tion of  each  of  the  junior  high  school,  departmental,  and  non- 
departmental  groups,  classified  according  to  the  population  of 
the  cities  in  which  located.  These  data  are  based  on  enrollments 
for  the  first  semester  of  the  year  1915-16  and  were  reported  by 
the  superintendent  as  the  official  enrollments  for  the  term  indica- 
ted. Data  were  reported  from  28  junior,  33  departmental,  and 
23  non-departmental  schools. 

The  purpose  of  the  collection  and  tabulation  of  these  data  is 
to  ascertain  for  each  type  of  school  and  for  each  population 
group  the  per  cent  of  enrollments  in  the  junior  and  senior  high 
schools  grades  as  compared  with  enrollments  in  the  first  six 
grades.  More  specifically  the  purpose  is  to  compare  junior  and 
senior  high  school  percentile  enrollments  in  school  of  the  junior 
type  with  the  corresponding  percentile  enrollments  in  schools  of 
the  departmental  and  non-departmental  types.  Enrollments  in 
grades  1  to  6  have  been  taken  as  basal  because  attendance  in  these 
grades  is,  with  few  exceptions,  compulsory,  and  this  group  of 
pupils  has  a  more  constant  and  uniform  ratio  to  population  than 
that  of  any  other  school  group.  From  the  comparisons  indicated 
above  it  is  hoped  that  some  conclusions  may  be  warranted 
relative  to  the  retaining  power  of  the  junior  and  non-junior  type 
schools. 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School 


141 


TABLE  28. 

RETENTION  IN  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  TERMS  OF  ENROLLMENTS  IN  CITIES 
OF  LESS  THAN  5,000  POPULATION,  WlTH  A  MEDIAN  POPULATION  OF  LESS 
THAN  1,000. 


SCHOOL 

2 
5 
6 
8 
9 
14 
15 
17 
19 
23 
33 
34 
35 

1-6 

108 

55 

120 
356 
442 
67 
102 
101 
300 
356 

170 

ENROLLMENT 
GRADE 
789 

16      13      24 
15        9      10 
21       16        9 
17       18      12 
48      27      40 
48      32       19 
997 
11       14      15 
16      15       17 
40      35      50 
65      49      63 
20      20      17 
24      22       25 

10-12 

41 
23 
24 
34 
60 
37 
4 
18 
38 
75 
103 
29 
60 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF  ENROLLMENT 
OF  GRADES  1  TO  6 
GRADE                            1 
78             97-9         10-12 

14.8     12.0    22.2    49.0    38.0 
27.3     16.4     18.2     61.9    41.8 

A 

0-12  is 
OF  7-9 

54.1 
67.6 
52.2 
72.4 
52.2 
37.4 
16.0 
45.0 
79.1 
60.0 
58.2 
50.9 
84.5 

14.2 
13.5 
10.9 
13.4 
10.8 
15.9 
13.3 
18.2 

15.0 
7.6 
7.2 
13.4 
13.1 
14.9 
11.7 
13.8 

10.0 
11.2 
4.3 
10.4 
14.1 
16.9 
16.7 
17.7 

39.4 
32.3 
22.4 
37.2 
38.0 
47.7 
41.7 
49.7 

28.3 
16.9 
7.4 
6.0 
17.6 
37.8 
25.0 
28.9 

14.1 

12.9 

14.7 

41.7 

35,3 

No  
Average 

11 
15.1 
14.1 

11 
12.5 
13.1 

11 
14.2 
14.7 

11 
41.9 
41.7 

11 

25.7 
28.3 

13 
56.1 
54.1 

Median.  . 

TABLE  29. 

RETENTION  IN  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  TERMS  OF  ENROLLMENTS  IN  CITIES 
AND  TOWNS  OF  FROM  5,000  TO  19,000  POPULATION,  WITH  A  MEDIAN 
POPULATION  OF  8,500. 


ENROLLMENT 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF  ENROLLMENT            % 
OF  GRADES  1  TO  6                         EN. 

SCHOOL 

GRADE 

GRADE 

10-12  is 

1-6 

7 

8 

9 

10-12 

7 

8 

9 

7-9 

10-12 

OF  7-9 

3     1 

,491 

225 

143 

172 

292 

15.1 

9.6 

11.5 

36.2 

19.6 

54.1 

4     1 

,297 

147 

138 

173 

290 

11.3 

10.6 

13.3 

35.2 

22.3 

63.3 

7     1 

,079 

160 

127 

104 

259 

15.0 

11.8 

9.7 

36.5 

24.0 

66.2 

16 

870 

118 

68 

93 

205 

13.6 

7.8 

10.7 

32.1 

23.6 

73.1 

20 

748 

99 

71 

82 

173 

13.2 

9.5 

10.9 

33.6 

23.1 

68.6 

24 

902 

112 

89 

68 

182 

12.4 

9.9 

7.5 

29.8 

20.2 

67.6 

27 

856 

75 

46 

56 

137 

8.8 

5.4 

6.8 

21.0 

16.0 

77.4 

28 

890 

89 

65 

101 

158 

10.0 

7.3 

11.3 

28.6 

17.7 

61.9 

31     1 

,100 

100 

85 

100 

253 

9.1 

7.7 

9.1 

25.9 

23.0 

88.8 

No. 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

Average  . 

12  1 

8  8 

10  1 

31  0 

21  1 

69.0 

Median  ,  , 

12.4 

9.5 

10.7 

32.1 

22*.3 

67^6 

142     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


TABLE  30. 

RETENTION  IN  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  TERMS  OF  ENROLLMENTS  IN  CITIES 
OF  20,000  AND  MORE  POPULATION,  WITH  A  MEDIAN  POPULATION  OF 
28,000. 


ENROLLMENI 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF  ENROLLMENT 
OF  GRADES  1  TO  6 

£ 

SCHOOL 

GRADE 

GRADE 

10-12  is 

1-6 

7 

8 

9 

10-12 

7 

8 

9 

7-9 

10-12 

OF  7-9 

10     2, 

717 

223 

129 

110 

126 

8.2 

4.7 

4.0 

16.9 

4.6 

27.3 

11     2, 

191 

343 

264 

210 

364 

15.7 

12.0 

9.6 

37.3 

16.6 

44.6 

12     8, 

133 

818 

500 

318 

612 

10.1 

6.1 

3.9 

20.1 

7.5 

37.4 

21     2, 

591 

429 

298 

233 

359 

16.6 

11.5 

8.9 

39.0 

13.8 

37.4 

25     2, 

664 

296 

235 

267 

436 

11.1 

8.8 

10.0 

29.9 

16.3 

54.6 

30     2, 

591 

224 

181 

150 

315 

8.6 

7.0 

5.8 

21.4 

12.2 

56.8 

No  

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Average  . 

11.7 

8.3 

7.0 

27.4 

11.8 

43.0 

Median 

10.6 

7.9 

7.3 

25.6 

13.0 

41.0 

TABLE  31. 

RETENTION  IN  DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS  IN  TERMS  OF  ENROLLMENTS  IN  CITIES 
AND  TOWNS  OF  LESS  THAN  5,000  POPULATION,  WITH  A  MEDIAN  POPULA- 
TION OF  2,800. 


ENROLLMENT 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF 
OF  GRADES  1 

ENROLLMENT 

TO  6 

£ 

Scoooi 

G: 

RADE 

( 

jRADE 

i 

10-12  is 

1-6 

7 

8 

9 

10-12 

7 

8 

9 

7-9 

10-12 

OF  7-9 

3 

21 

15 

25 

47 

77.0 

5 

444 

57 

57 

63 

127 

12.8 

12.8 

14.2 

39.8 

28.6 

71.8 

7 

328 

33 

25 

34 

80 

10.1 

7.6 

10.4 

28.1 

24.4 

87.0 

8 

541 

80 

59 

55 

121 

14.8 

10.9 

10.2 

35.9 

22.4 

62.4 

21 

356 

52 

31 

37 

77 

14.6 

8.7 

10.4 

33.7 

21.6 

64.2 

22 

348 

53 

31 

44 

90 

15.2 

8.9 

12.6 

36.7 

25.9 

70.3 

23 

492 

72 

57 

79 

136 

14.6 

11.6 

16.0 

42.2 

27.6 

65.4 

25 

180 

22 

12 

14 

35 

12.2 

6.7 

7.8 

26.7 

19.4 

72.9 

26 

463 

73 

54 

77 

158 

15.8 

11.7 

16.6 

44.1 

34.1 

77.8 

27 

316 

52 

37 

48 

85 

16.5 

11.7 

15.3 

43.5 

26.9 

62.0 

28 

151 

27 

19 

24 

52 

17.9 

12.6 

15.9 

46.4 

34.4 

74.3 

29 

347 

55 

46 

63 

127 

15.8 

13.2 

18.1 

47.1 

36.3 

77.4 

31 

24 

23 

40 

59 

67  8 

33 

16S 

21 

19 

31 

69 

12.5 

11.3 

18.4 

42.2 

41.1 

97.2 

35 

200 

25 

26 

30 

63 

12.5 

13.0 

15.0 

40.5 

31.5 

77.8 

No , 13 

Average 14 . 3 

Median..  14.6 


13         13         13         13        15 
10.8     13.8    38.9    28.7     73.7 
11.6     15.0    40.5     27.6    72.9 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School 


143 


TABLE  32. 

RETENTION  IN  DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS  IN  TERMS  OF  ENROLLMENTS  IN  CITIES 
OF  FROM  5,000  TO  19,000  POPULATION,  WITH  A  MEDIAN  POPULATION  OF 
8,800. 


ENROLLMENT 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF 
OF  GRADES  1 

ENROLLMENT 

TO  6 

& 

SCHOOL 

GRADE 

GRADE 

10-12  IS 

1-6 

7 

8 

9 

10-12 

7 

8 

9 

7-9 

10-12 

OF  7-9 

1 

1,343 

132 

122 

127 

166 

9.8 

9.1 

9.5 

28.4 

12.3 

43.6 

2 

723 

90 

67 

80 

158 

12.4 

9.3 

11.1 

32.8 

21.8 

62.4 

4 

1,347 

120 

67 

87 

161 

8.9 

5.0 

6.5 

20.4 

11.9 

58.7 

6 

883 

103 

69 

110 

160 

11.6 

7.8 

12.4 

31.8 

18.1 

56.7 

9 

524 

64 

51 

72 

177 

12.2 

9.7 

13.7 

35.6 

33.8 

94.7 

10 

1,216 

116 

122 

84 

171 

9.5 

10.0 

6.9 

26.4 

14.1 

53.1 

11 

1,148 

170 

139 

115 

296 

14.8 

12.1 

10.0 

36.9 

25.8 

69.8 

12 

523 

89 

61 

70 

132 

17.0 

11.6 

13.4 

42.0 

25.2 

60.0 

14 

1,195 

114 

85 

116 

171 

9.6 

7.1 

9.7 

26.4 

14.3 

54.3 

15 

874 

92 

69 

74 

120 

10.5 

7.9 

8.4 

26.8 

13.7 

51.1 

18 

1,455 

158 

105 

98 

161 

10.8 

7.2 

6.7 

24.7 

11.1 

44.6 

19 

1,546 

130 

167 

90 

161 

8.4 

10.8 

5.8 

25.0 

10.4 

41.6 

20 

658 

88 

75 

97 

120 

13.4 

11.4 

14.7 

39.5 

18.2 

46.1 

24 

852 

82 

64 

68 

120 

9.6 

7.5 

8.0 

25.1 

14.1 

56.1 

30 

770 

100 

80 

13.0 

10  4 

32 

1,205 

156 

128 

102 

171 

12.9 

10.6 

8.5 

32.0 

14.2 

44.3 

No 

16 

16 

15 

15 

15 

15 

Average 

11.5 

9  2 

9  7 

30.2 

17.3 

55.8 

Median 

11.2 

9.5 

9.5 

28.4 

14.2 

54^3 

c 

I 

h. 

C 

15- 


?0 

CHART  3. 

Retention  in  terms  of  enroll- 
ments, based  on  tables  28  to 
33,  inclusive.  r 

'a"  schools  in  cities  of  5,000—   O-6  • 

"b"  schools  in  cities  of  5,000 
to  19,000. 

"c"  schools  in  cities  of  20,000 
and  +. 

Numbers    at    left    represent  30  - 
per    cent    enrollments    are    of 
enrollments  in  grades  1  to  6. 

junior  schools. 

—  departmental  schools. 

Upper  pair  of  lines,   grades  , 
7  to  9.  <O 

Lower  pair  of  lines,  grades  10 
to  12. 


*0- 

/s- 

/o- 


144     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


TABLE  33. 

RETENTION  IN  DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS  IN  TERMS  OF  ENROLLMENTS  IN  CITIES 
OF  20,000  AND  MORE  POPULATION,  WITH  A  MEDIAN  POPULATION  OF 
22,000. 


SCHOOL 

13  2 
16  2 
17  1 

1-6 

,387 
,748 
,746 

ENROLLMENT 
GRADE 
789 

250     221     201 
323     229     184 
199     156     161 

10-12 

454 
381 
160 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF 
OF  GRADES  1 
GRADE 
789 

10.4       9.3       8.4 
11.7       8.3       6.7 
11.4      8.9      9.2 

ENROLLMENT 

TO  6 

7-9          10-12 

28.1     19.0 
26.7     13.8 
29.5      9.2 

A 

10-12  is 
OF  7-9 

67.5 
51.8 
38.4 

No 

3 
11.2 
11.4 

3          3 
8.8      8.1 
8.9      8.4 

3 

28 
28 

1 
,1 

3 
14.0 
13.8 

3 
52.6 
51.8 

Average 

Median  .  . 

TABLE  34. 

RETENTION  IN  NON-DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS  IN  TERMS  OF  ENROLLMENTS  IN 
CITIES  AND  TOWNS  WITH  A  MEDIAN  POPULATION  OF  1,350. 


ENROLLMENT 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF  ENROLLMENT     % 
OF  GRADES  1  TO  6          EN. 

SCHOOL 

GRADE 

GRADE 

10-12  is 

1-6 

7 

8 

9 

10-12 

7 

8 

9 

7-9 

10-12 

OF  7-9 

1 

181 

28 

30 

35 

88 

15.9 

16.9 

19.3 

52.1 

48.6 

94.6 

2 

84 

11 

11 

8 

30 

13.1 

13.1 

9.5 

35.7 

35.7 

100.0 

3 

340 

41 

45 

44 

100 

12.1 

13.2 

12.9 

38.2 

29.4 

76.9 

4 

150 

31 

23 

32 

63 

20.7 

15.3 

21.3 

57.3 

42.0 

73.0 

5 

190 

31 

16 

32 

64 

16.3 

9.0 

16.8 

42.1 

33.7 

81.0 

6 

379 

65 

72 

57 

122 

11.2 

12.4 

9.8 

33.4 

21.1 

62.9 

7 

193 

13 

20 

28 

39 

6.7 

10.3 

14.5 

31.5 

20.2 

63.9 

8 

91 

12 

14 

7 

28 

13.2 

15.4 

7.7 

36.3 

30.8 

84.8 

9 

175 

20 

32 

20 

54 

11.4 

18.3 

11.4 

41.1 

30.8 

75.0 

10 

270 

35 

31 

25 

45 

13.0 

11.5 

9.2 

33.7 

16.7 

49.4 

11 

124 

12 

12 

16 

24 

9.6 

9.6 

12.9 

32.1 

19.3 

60.0 

12 

483 

68 

62 

68 

162 

14.1 

12.8 

14.1 

41.0 

33.5 

81.8 

13 

155 

24 

14 

30 

48 

15.5 

9.0 

19.3 

43.8 

31.0 

70.6 

14 

197 

26 

38 

34 

93 

13.2 

19.3 

17.2 

49.7 

47.2 

94.9 

15 

152 

10 

26 

10 

32 

6.6 

17.1 

6.6 

30.3 

21.1 

69.5 

16 

18 

20 

23 

50 

82.0 

17 

160 

13 

12 

20 

36 

's.i 

7.5 

12.5 

28.1 

22^5 

80.0 

18 

224 

29 

39 

30 

49 

12.9 

17.4 

13.4 

43.7 

21.8 

50.0 

19 

300 

32 

28 

14 

17 

10.7 

9.3 

4.7 

24.7 

5.7 

23.0 

20 

124 

14 

22 

25 

48 

11.3 

17.7 

20.1 

49.1 

38.7 

78.7 

21 

79 

13 

10 

10 

30 

16.4 

12.6 

12.6 

41.6 

37.9 

90.9 

22 

322 

50 

42 

43 

93 

15.5 

13.0 

13.3 

41.8 

28.9 

68.9 

23 

137 

22 

15 

21 

26 

16.0 

10.9 

15.3 

32.2 

19.0 

44.8 

No 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

23 

Average 

12  9 

13.3 

13.1 

39.5 

28.9 

72.0 

Median  . 

13.1 

12.9 

13.1 

41.1 

30.1 

75.0 

Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  145 

TABLE  3.5. 

SUMMARY  OF  TABLES  28  TO  34  INCLUSIVE. 
(a)  average  per  cents.  (b)  median  per  cents. 

%  ENROLLMENT  is  OF  ENROLLMENT  %  ENROLLMENT  10-12 

POPULATION  IN  GRADES  1  TO  6  is  OF  ENROLLMENT 

GROUP  GRADES  7  TO  9  GRADES  10-12  7  TO  9 

(a)  JUNIOR  DEP'TL  NON-DP.  JUNIOR   DEP'IL  NON-DP.  JR.   DEP'TL  NON-DP. 

5,000- 41.9    38.9    39.5     25.7  28.7  28.9  56.1  73.7  72.0 

5,000-19,000...      31.0    30.2     21.1  17.3  69.0  55.8  

20,000&  + 27.4     28.1     11.8  14.0  43.0  52.6  

Total 58.3  63.9  72.0 


(b)  as  above  .  .  . 

41 

32 
25, 

.7 
,1 
6 

40.5 
28.4 
28.1 

41 

.1 

28.3 
22.3 
13.0 

27.6 
14.2 
13.8 

30.1 

54.1 
67.6 
41.0 
57.5 

72.9 
54.3 
51.8 
62.4 

75.0 
75  !6 

Tables  28  to  35  show  the  per  cent  the  7th,  8th,  9th,  7th  to  9th, 
and  the  10th  to  12th  grade  enrollments,  respectively  are  of  en- 
rollments in  grades  1  to  6  combined,  for  junior  high  schools, 
departmental  schools,  and  non-departmental  schools,  and  the 
per  cent  the  enrollment  in  grades  10  to  12  is  of  the  enrollment  in 
grades  7  to  9. 

Table  28  should  be  read:  school  No.  2  of  the  junior  high 
school  group  has  enrollments  of  108,  16,  13,  24  and  41,  respec- 
tively, in  grades  7,  8,  9,  7  to  9,  and  10  to  12;  and  the  enrollments 
in  grades  7,  8,  9,  7  to  9,  and  10  to  12  are  respectively  14.8  12.0, 
22.2,  49.0,  and  38.0  per  cent  of  the  enrollments  in  grades  1  to  6 
combined;  and  the  enrollments  in  grades  10  to  12  are  54.1  per 
cent  of  the  enrollments  in  grades  7  to  9.  Tables  29  to  34  inclusive 
are  to  be  read  in  a  similar  manner. 

Averages  are  computed  by  schools  and  not  on  the  number  of 
pupils  in  all  schools  combined  as  the  latter  gives  undue  weight 
to  the  relatively  large  school.  It  is  comparative  results  we  are 
seeking.  All  non-departmental  schools  are  in  cities  and  towns  of 
5,000  population  or  less. 

A  comparison  of  average  results  from  the  three  types  of  schools 
when  classified  according  to  the  size  of  the  towns  or  cities  in 
which  located  shows  that  in  cities  of  less  than  5,000  population 
the  per  cents  of  enrollments  in  grades  7,  8,  or  9  are  variable  within 
narrow  limits  for  the  three  types,  no  one  type  maintaining  the 
lead  for  all  three  grades.  The  enrollments  for  grades  7,  8  and  9 
combined  are  41.9%,  38.9%,  and  39.5%  of  enrollments  in  grades 
1  to  6  respectively  for  junior,  departmental,  and  non-department- 
al schools.  The  advantage  seems  to  be  with  the  junior  schools. 
The  differences  are  small  but  have  more  significance  when  we 


146     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

consider  that  reorganization  has  taken  place  very  recently  in 
these  schools.  If  medians  be  considered  the  corresponding  per 
cents  are  41.7,  40.5,  and  41.1,  the  advantage  still  being  with  the 
junior  group. 

The  per  cents  of  enrollments  in  grades  10  to  12  are  25.7, 
28.7,  and  28.9  of  enrollments  in  grades  1  to  6  respectively  for 
the  three  types  of  schools  in  order  as  above,  the  junior  group 
being  below  the  others  by  about  the  same  amount  as  it  was 
above  in  grades  7  to  9.  The  corresponding  per  cents  for  medians 
are  28.3,  27.6,  and  30.1  respectively.  The  low  average  for  the 
senior  high  school  enrollments  in  the  junior  type  schools  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  one  school,  No.  15,  is  just  establishing  a  four 
year  course  and  had  at  the  time  data  were  collected  but  6%  as 
many  pupils  enrolled  in  grades  10  to  12  as  in  grades  1  to  6.  This 
lowers  the  average  of  the  entire  group  by  3%.  The  median  would 
seem  to  be  the  more  reliable  index  of  conditions  in  this  case,  and 
if  this  is  used  the  junior  group  schools  are  superior  to  depart- 
mental schools  in  retention  thru  the  senior  high  school  in  cities 
of  this  class.  The  fact  that  junior  organization  is  of  so  recent 
date  in  practically  all  these  schools  may  easily  account  for  no 
marked  superiority  of  these  schools  over  departmental  schools  in 
retention  in  the  senior  high  school. 

In  cities  of  this  class  the  junior  type  schools  have  a  lower 
ratio  of  enrollments  in  grades  10  to  12  to  enrollments  in  grades 
7  to  9  than  have  either  of  the  other  groups.  The  per  cents  for 
the  junior,  departmental,  and  non-departmental  groups  are 
respectively  56.1,  73.7,  and  72.0.  The  use  of  this  ratio  as  a  meas- 
ure of  retention  as  is  done  by  Douglass  and  others  may  be  very 
misleading,  especially  in  schools  where  the  reorganization  is  just 
beginning  to  be  felt.  Naturally  this  influence  will  be  apparent 
first  in  the  junior  high  school  grades  and  the  greater  the  in- 
fluence here  the  lower  will  be  the  ratio  of  senior  to  junior  high 
school  enrollments  until  the  influence  has  had  time  to  work  itself 
fully  thru  the  entire  high  school.  On  the  other  hand  some 
high  schools  receive  into  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades  many 
pupils  from  neighboring  1,  2  or  3  year,  or  from  4  year  certified 
schools,  in  which  case  the  ratio  of  senior  to  junior  enrollments  is 
high  as  compared  with  that  in  other  schools  where  the  normal 
conditions  of  retention  are  really  better. 

For  cities  of  from  5,000  to  19,000  population  the  per  cents 
the  enrollments  in  grades  7  to  9  are  of  enrollments  in  grades  1  to  6 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  147 

are  31.1  and  30.2  respectively  for  junior  and  departmental  schools; 
and  the  enrollments  in  grades  10  to  12  are  21.1%  and  17.3%  of 
the  enrollments  in  grades  1  to  6  respectively  for  the  same  school 
groups;  and  enrollments  in  grades  10  to  12  are  69%  and  55.8% 
of  the  enrollments  in  grades  7  to  9  of  the  same  schools.  In  this 
group  of  cities  the  junior  type  schools  have  a  clear  advantage 
over  departmental  schools  in  all  three  comparisons  for  measuring 
retention.  If  median  results  be  used  the  junior  schools  maintain 
their  advantage  in  all  comparisons,  the  per  cents  corresponding 
to  the  averages  above  being,  32.1,  28.4,  22.  3,  14.2,  67.6,  and  54.3, 
respectively. 

For  cities  of  the  20,000  and  more  population  class  the  depart- 
mental schools  have  a  slightly  higher  per  cent  of  enrollments  in 
grades  7  to  9  and  in  10  to  12  than  the  junior  type  schools,  and 
also  "a  higher  ratio  of  enrollments  in  grades  10  to  12  as  compared 
with  grades  7  to  9.  The  per  cents  in  order  as  for  the  last  com- 
parison are,  27.4,  28.1,  11.8,  14.0,  43.0,  and  52.6  for  junior  and 
departmental  schools.  The  median  results  are  25.6,  28.1,  13.0, 
13.8,  41.0,  and  51.8,  respectively.  The  best  results  would 
naturally  be  anticipated  for  the  junior  type  schools  in  the  larger 
cities  where  differentiated  opportunities  can  best  be  provided, 
but  it  is  here  that  the  departmental  schools  excel  most  the  junior 
schools. 

The  above  data  show  that  the  junior  type  schools  are  superior 
to  departmental  schools  in  power  of  retention  as  measured  by 
the  per  cent  of  enrollments  in  junior  and  senior  school  grades  as 
compared  with  enrollments  in  grades  1  to  6  in  schools  in  cities  of 
less  than  20,000  population  and  slightly  inferior  in  cities  of  20,000 
and  more  population. 

Other  facts  that  are  apparent  from  these  tables  are  that  the 
per  cent  the  enrollments  in  both  junior  and  senior  high  school 
grades  is  of  enrollments  in  grades  1  to  6  decreases  as  we  pass 
from  the  smaller  towns  and  cities  to  the  larger,  and  that  in  both 
junior  and  departmental  schools  in  cities  of  less  than  20,000  9th 
grade  enrollments  are  greater  than  in  grade  eight.  Both  of  these 
conditions  are  to  be  accounted  for,  probably,  by  the  fact  that 
the  smaller  school  corporation  draws  many  pupils  from  surround- 
ing rural  areas  in  the  upper  grammar  grades  and  especially  in 
the  high  school.  In  cities  of  20,000  and  more  population  9th 
grade  enrollments  are  less  than  in  the  8th  in  both  junior  and  de- 
partmental schools. 


148     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Douglass5  reports  for  34  junior  type  schools  an  enrollment  of 
59  in  the  senior  high  school  for  every  100  in  the  junior  high  school 
(grades  7  to  9  inclusive).  Table  35  (a)  shows  that  for  the  28  junior 
type  schools  included  in  this  table,  under  the  last  column  head- 
ing, there  are  58.3  pupils  enrolled  in  grades  10  to  12  for  every  100 
in  grades  7  to  9,  but  when  the  enrollments  are  averaged  for  the 
33  departmental  schools  for  the  same  grades  there  are  63.9 
pupils  enrolled  in  grades  10  to  12  for  every  100  in  grades  7  to  9. 
The  limitations  of  this  method  of  measuring  retention  have  been 
noted  above. 

The  measurement  of  retention  in  terms  of  enrollments  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  it  conceals  increases  or  decreases  in 
school  enrollments  due  to  increasing  or  declining  city  population. 
Thus  a  school  in  a  rapidly  growing  community  may  have  a  large 
lower  grade  enrollment  and  a  small  enrollment  in  the  grammar 
grades  and  high  school,  which  causes  it  to  appear  to  have  a  very 
low  retentive  power,  while  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  reverse  may  be 
true.  Also,  as  previously  noted,  certain  schools  may  have  un- 
usually high  enrollments  in  upper  high  school  grades  because  of 
transfer  from  two  and  three  year  high  schools  in  the  surrounding 
territory.  However  where  we  are  comparing  several  schools  of 
one  type  and  class  with  several  of  another  type  but  of  the  same 
city  class,  as  we  are  in  this  investigation,  the  objection  noted 
above  is  largely  removed  as  we  are  measuring  group  tendencies 
rather  than  individual  schools.  We  have  already  disposed  of 
another  objection  by  dividing  our  schools  according  to  the  size 
of  the  cities  in  which  they  are  located.  It  would  be  desirable  to 
have  enrollments  by  sex  to  note  what  type  of  organization, 
junior  or  departmental,  makes  the  stronger  appeal  to  one  sex 
or  the  other.  As  many  of  the  schools  reported  total  enrollments 
only  and  not  boys  and  girls  separately,  total  enrollment  data 
only  have  been  used  in  this  section  of  my  report.  Schools  were 
asked  to  report  enrollment  data  for  1911  also  that  changes  in 
enrollments  and  retention  over  a  period  of  years  might  be  ascer- 
tained and  its  relation  to  any  particular  type  of  organization 
noted,  but  very  few  schools  submitted  data  relative  to  this  item, 
so  few  that  the  data  are  valueless  for  comparative  purposes. 

6  Douglass,  A.  A.     The  Junior  High  School.    XVth  Year  Book  of  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education.    1916,  part  III.    p.  104. 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  149 

b.     Retention  Measured  in  Terms  of  High  Sixth  Grade  Pupils 

Retained  in  the  School  System  Thru  Half  Years 

of  Attendance. 

In  view  of  the  limitations  indicated  above  for  measuring 
retention  in  terms  of  present  enrollments,  other  data  were  collected 
which,  it  was  thought,  would  afford  a  better  index  of  retention 
than  the  method  previously  used.  For  this  purpose  data  have 
been  collected  from  several  schools  showing  the  high  sixth  grade 
enrollments  for  the  second  semester  of  the  school  years  1907-8 
and  1912-13,  boys  and  girls  being  listed  separately.  The  data 
collected  show  exactly  how  many  of  the  pupils  enrolled  in  each 
of  these  groups  were  retained  in  the  school  system  1,2,3,4,5  and 
6  half  years;  also  how  many  of  each  of  the  originally  enrolled 
pupils  made  a  school  advancement  of  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  and  6  half 
years  for  each  date  group.  From  these  data  the  per  cent  of 
retention  thru  each  number  of  half  years  from  1  to  6  has  been 
computed  for  junior  and  departmental  schools  separately  for 
each  date  and  for  boys,  girls  and  totals.  Junior  and  departmental 
schools  are  then  compared  as  to  attendance  retention  (half  years 
in  school)  and  progress  retention  (half  years  of  advancement)  for 
boys,  girls,  and  totals  and  for  both  dates;  and  also  as  to  the 
increase  in  the  per  cent  of  retention  during  the  five  year  interval 
between  the  1907-8  and  the  1912-13  groups. 

Is  is  assumed  that  age-grade  conditions  and  the  extent  of 
moving  away  from  the  school  system  are  approximately  the  same 
at  the  two  dates,  1907-8  and  1912-13,  for  any  given  school. 

As  conditions  necessarily  vary  somewhat  from  school  to 
school  making  for  high  or  low  retention  at  both  dates,  the  in- 
crease in  the  per  cent  of  retention  between  the  two  dates  is 
perhaps  a  better  index  of  improvement  than  is  the  actual  per 
cent  of  retention  at  either  date. 

A  clear  advantage  of  this  method  of  measuring  retention 
is  that  it  follows  the  records  of  certain  definite  pupils  enrolled  in 
a  given  system  thru  a  certain  number  of  years.  Accordingly  it 
determines  the  holding  power  of  the  school  for  these  certain  pupils 
regardless  of  whether  the  city  is  growing  rapidly  or  slowly  in  pop- 
ulation. 

Obvious  limitations  of  this  method  of  investigation  are: 
first,  that  pupils  moving  away  from  the  school  system  in  which 
they  were  enrolled  as  high  sixth  grade  pupils  are  checked  against 
this  system  on  the  negative  account  even  though  the  child 


150     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

leaves  thru  no  dislike  of  school  and  frequently  attends  school  in 
another  system  into  whose  jurisdiction  he  moves.  Second, 
pupils  moving  into  a  district  after  passing  the  high  sixth  grade 
level  and  attending  school  there,  frequently  for  several  years, 
are  not  counted  on  the  positive  retention  account  of  this  school. 
In  case  the  number  of  schools  considered  is  sufficiently  great  the 
marked  differences  in  individual  schools,  in  the  respects  noted 
above,  will  be  neutralized  in  the  general  tendencies  of  the  g*>up 
of  schools,  and  it  is  essentially  group  tendencies  with  which  we 
are  concerned.  The  most  obvious  limitation  of  this  phase  of 
the  investigation  is  the  small  number  of  schools  from  which  data 
were  secured. 

Ten  of  the  schools  claiming  junior  high  school  organization 
date  their  junior  organization  from  September  1914  or  earlier. 
It  is  apparent  that  data  from  schools  organized  since  that  date 
would  have  little  or  no  value  for  this  comparison  as  the  reorgani- 
zation influence  could  not  have  influenced  retention  in  grades 
7,  8  and  9  from  the  second  semester  of  1912-13.  If  reorganiza- 
tion influences  retention  it  should  be  apparent  to  some  degree  in 
schools  reorganized  before  1914,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  spirit  of  such  a  movement  usually  precedes  its  formal 
accomplishment  by  two  or  three  years. 

Data  were  solicited  from  these  ten  schools  and  twenty  de- 
partmental schools  of  approximately  similar  size.  Five  of  the 
ten  junior  type  schools  contributed  the  desired  data  as  did  also 
four  of  the  departmental  schools.  A  fifth  departmental  school 
supplied  data  for  the  1912-13  group  of  pupils  but  its  results  are 
omitted  from  comparative  averages  and  medians  because  growth 
in  retention  between  the  two  dates  cannot  be  determined  for 
this  school. 

Inability  to  trace  pupil  records  thru  the  years  indicated  was 
the  chief  cause  of  non-cooperation  by  all  the  schools  of  which  the 
request  was  made.  The  data  were  collected  during  the  months 
of  April,  May  and  June,  1917,  and  were  compiled  from  the 
school  records  in  the  superintendent's  office  in  each  case  by  the 
superintendent  or  by  his  clerk  under  his  direction.  The  data 
were  collected  in  accordance  with  the  directions  indicated  below, 
and  no  further  checking  has  been  attempted  to  verify  their 
accuracy  than  to  note  whether  the  data  sent  in  seemed  within 
the  bounds  of  reason. 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  151 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  TABULATING  OR  CHECKING  RETENTION  DATA. 

"Indicate  the  name  of  the  city  and  by  whom  the  data  were  checked. 
Divide  the  tabulation  sheet  into  five  columns.  In  column  1  write  a  complete 
list  of  all  boys  enrolled  in  the  high  sixth  grade  of  your  schools  during  the 
second  semester  of  the  school  year  1912-13.  In  column  2,  opposite  the  name 
of  each  pupil  in  column  1,  indicate  the  number  of  half  years  each  pupil  attended 
your  schools  below  grade  9  after  the  date  given  in  column  1.  In  column 
3  indicate  the  number  of  half  years  of  advancement  each  of  these  pupils 
received  in  your  schools  below  grade  9  after  the  date  indicated  in  column  1. 
In  column  4  indicate  the  number  of  half  years  each  of  these  pupils  attended 
grades  9-12  inclusive  after  the  date  indicated  in  column  1.  In  column  5 
indicate  the  number  of  high  school  credits  completed  by  each  of  these  pupils 
in  grades  9-12  inclusive  after  the  date  indicated  in  column  1. 

If  a  pupil  has  withdrawn  from  school  during  the  term  without  completing 
the  work  of  the  term  count  his  attendance  as  one-half  of  a  year  for  the  term  in 
question. 

A  high  school  credit  is  to  be  given  for  a  subject  satisfactorily  completed 
which  has  daily  recitations  for  a  half  year.  Four  credits  constitute  a  normal 
half  year's  work.  Indicate  fractional  credits  on  a  proportional  basis. 

Be  sure  to  check  over  your  high  sixth  grade  list  for  the  semester  following 
the  date  given  in  column  1  to  include  any  pupil  who  may  not  have  been  pro- 
moted to  grade  seven  at  the  end  of  the  semester  for  which  the  list  was  prepared. 

Prepare  similar  lists  for  girls  of  the  high  sixth  grade  for  the  second  semester 
of  1912-13  and  also  separate  list  for  boys  and  girls  for  the  second  semester  of 
the  year  1907-8  for  the  same  grade  as  above. 

Compute  the  data  for  the  1912-13  groups  to  the  end  of  the  first  semester  in 
January,  1917." 

Tables  37  to  40  show  the  retention  of  high  sixth  grade  pupils 
thru  each  half  year  of  attendance  from  1  to  6  for  junior  and 
departmental  schools  for  the  dates  of  1912-13  and  1907-8,  and 
tables  41  and  42  show  the  gain  or  loss  in  the  per  cent  of  retention 
during  the  five  year  interval  between  these  two  date  groups. 
Table  36  shows  the  enrollments  in  the  high  sixth  grade  for  boys 
and  girls  separately  and  for  both  1907-8  and  1912-13. 

TABLE  36. 

HIGH  SIXTH  GRADE  ENROLLMENTS. 
IN  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  DEPARTMENTAL  SCHOOLS 


SCHOOL 

1912-13 

1907-8     SCHOOL     1912-13 

1907-8 

B 

G 

T 

B 

G 

T 

B 

G 

T 

B 

G    T 

3 

42 

37 

79 

31 

17 

48 

2 

21 

22 

43 

21 

22   43 

10 

42 

24 

66 

32 

24 

56 

11 

39 

32 

71 

40 

32   72 

22 

78 

62 

140 

77 

90 

167 

16j 

38 

38 

76 

20 

18   38 

24 

22 

19 

41 

37 

20 

57 

17 

54 

47 

101 

49 

53  102 

25 

57 

62 

119 

64 

70 

134 

32 

72 

69 

141 

.  .  . 



Note:     In  this  and  following  tables  B,  G,  T,  means  boys,  girls,  and  totals  respectively. 
This  table  is  the  base  for  computing  per  cents  in  the  following  tables. 

Table  36  should  be  read:  School  3  of  the  junior  high  school 
group  had  42  boys,  37  girls,  and  a  total  of  79  pupils  enrolled  in 
the  high  sixth  grade  during  the  second  semester  of  the  year 
1912-13,  and  31  boys,  17  girls  and  a  total  of  48  pupils  for  the 
same  semester  in  1907-8. 


152     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  153 

Table  37  should  be  read:  School  3  of  the  junior  group  had 
35  boys,  30  girls,  and  a  total  of  65  pupils  retained  from  the 
high  sixth  grade  of  the  second  semester  of  1912-13  for  one-half 
year.  Reduced  to  per  cents  there  were  83.3%  boys,  81.1%  girls 
and  a  total  of  82.3%  of  all  pupils  retained  one-half  year  or  more. 
52.4%  boys,  27%  girls  and  40.5%  of  all  combined  were  retained 
thru  6  half  years  of  attendance.  On  the  average  79.8%  of  all 
high  sixth  grade  pupils  were  retained  1  year;  63.3%,  2  years;  and 
46.4%,  3  years. 

Tables  38,  39  and  40  are  to  be  read  in  a  similar  manner. 


154     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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156     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Retention  of  Pupils  in  School 


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158     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Table  41  should  be  read:  in  school  3  there  is  a  gain  in  reten- 
tion thru  one-half  year  of  9.1%  for  boys,  22.3%  for  girls  and 
13.5%  for  all  pupils  of  the  high  sixth  grade  during  the  interval 
between  the  1907-8  and  the  1912-13  classes.  On  the  average  for 
the  five  schools  there  is  a  gain  for  all  pupils  of  7.3%  thru  1  year 
(2  half  years),  10.5%  thru  2  years,  and  9.1%  thru  3  years. 

Table  42  is  to  be  read  in  like  manner. 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School 


159 


CHART  4. 

Retention  in  terms  of  attendance  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  based  on  tables  37  to  40 

Numbers  at  top  represent  half  years;  and  numbers  at  the  left,  the  per  cent  of  high  sixth 
pupils  retained. 

and junior  schools. 

and departmental  schools. 

Upper  pair  of  lines,  1912-13  groups. 
Lower  pair  of  lines,  1907-8  groups. 


CHART  5. 

Gain  in  attendance 
retention  by  boys  be- 
tween the  dates  1907- 
8  and  1912-13,  based 
on  tables  41  and  42. 

Numbers  at  top 
represent  half  years. 

Numbers  at  left 
represent  per  cent  of 
gain. 

junior  schools. 

departmental 

schools. 


160     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Table  37  shows  that  for  the  1912-13  group  in  junior  high 
schools  on  the  average  4.2%  more  boys  than  girls  were  retained 
thru  1  year  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade,  that  8.7%  more  boys 
than  girls  were  retained  thru  2  years,  and  7.8%  more  boys  than 
girls  were  retained  thru  3  years.  Table  38  shows  that  5  years 
earlier  in  these  same  schools  1.4%  more  boys  than  girls  were 
retained  thru  1  year,  2.2%  more  girls  than  boys  were  retained 
thru  2  years,  and  3.9%  more  girls  than  boys  were  retained  thru 
3  years  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade.  In  the  junior  schools  the 
boys  made  marked  gains  as  compared  with  the  girls  during  the 
5  year  interval  indicated  in  table  41. 

Tables  39,  40  and  42  show  corresponding  data  for  the  de- 
partmental schools.  Table  39  shows  that  for  the  1912-13  group 
3.9%  more  boys  than  girls  were  retained  thru  1  year,  4.7%  more 
girls  than  boys  were  retained  thru  2  years,  and  7.6%  more  girls 
than  boys  were  retained  thru  3  years  beyond  the  high  sixth 
grade.  Table  40  shows  that  for  the  1907-8  group  6.2%  more 
boys  than  girls  were  retained  thru  1  year,  10%  more  boys  than 
girls  thru  2  years,  and  10.5%  more  boys  than  girls  were  retained 
thru  3  years  beyond  the  high  sixth  grade.  Table  42  shows  that 
there  was  a  decided  increase  in  retention  in  departmental  schools 
during  the  5  year  interval  but  that  the  marked  increase  was  with 
the  girls  who  surpass  the  boys  in  retention  at  the  latter  date. 
This  condition  is  directly  contrary  to  the  tendency  in  the  junior 
type  schools  where  the  boys  have  the  higher  retention  at  the  latter 
date  although  starting  with  the  lower  record  5  years  before. 

A  comparison  of  the  averages  of  tables  37  and  39  shows  that 
for  all  pupils  of  the  1912-13  group  the  departmental  schools  have 
a  3%  higher  retention  than  the  junior  schools  thru  1  year  (82.8% 
to  79.8%),  a  7%  higher  retention  thru  2  years  (70%  to  63.3%), 
and  a  7%  higher  retention  thru  3  years  (53%  to  46.4%). 

When  these  tables  are  compared  for  the  per  cent  of  boys 
retained  we  find  the  departmental  schools  3%  higher  thru  1 
year,  1%  higher  thru  2  years,  and  both  equal  thru  3  years  beyond 
the  high  sixth  grade. 

Comparison  of  the  averages  of  tables  41  and  42  for  all  pupils 
shows  the  junior  type  schools  to  have  a  3%  greater  increase  in 
retention  than  the  departmental  schools  thru  1  year  (7.3%  to 
4.6%),  a  1%  smaller  increase  thru  2  years  (10.5%  to  11.8%), 
and  a  4%  smaller  increase  thru  3  years  (9.1%  to  12.7%). 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  161 

When  tables  41  and  42  are  compared  for  boys  only  the  junior 
schools  have  a  5%  greater  increase  in  retention  than  the  depart- 
mental schools  thru  1  year  (8.5%  to  3.7%),  a  10%  greater  in- 
crease thru  2  years  (15.2%  to  5.6%),  and  a  10%  greater  increase 
thru  3  years  (13.8%  to  3.9%). 

As  measured  in  terms  of  attendance  retention  of  all  pupils 
(boys  and  girls)  of  the  1912-13  group  the  departmental  schools 
are  superior  to  the  junior  schools,  but  as  measured  in  terms  of 
gain  in  retention  by  boys  during  the  5  year  interval  the  junior 
schools  have  a  distinct  superiority. 

The  1907-8  data  in  my  possession  show  retention  thru  the 
senior  high  school  also,  but  as  the  1912-13  pupils  have  not  yet 
reached  the  upper  high  school  grades  these  data  have  no  com- 
parative value  for  this  study,  and  so  are  omitted. 

The  fact  that  2  of  the  junior  and  1  of  the  departmental  schools 
computed  their  data  to  June  1917  instead  of  January  1917  as 
directed  has  no  effect  on  the  data  submitted  in  the  preceding 
tables  as  more  than  three  years,  the  period  for  which  the  tables 
were  designed,  had  elapsed  at  either  of  the  dates,  January  or 
June. 

The  foregoing  tables  exhibit  data  relative  to  retention  in  terms 
of  half  years  of  attendance.  The  material  collected  from 
these  schools  enables  us  to  compare  junior  and  departmental 
schools  as  to  retention  in  terms  of  half  years  of  progress  thru  the 
school  system.  Tables  43  to  46  indicate  retention  thru  half  years 
of  progress  for  both  junior  and  departmental  schools  for  the 
1907-8  and  the  1912-13  groups,  and  tables  47  and  48  show  the 
gain  or  loss  per  cent  in  progress  retention  during  the  5  year  inter- 
val. 


162     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  163 

Table  43  should  be  read:  in  school  3  of  the  junior  group  34 
boys  and  30  girls  of  those  who  were  enrolled  in  the  high  sixth 
grade  during  the  second  semester  of  1912-13  remained  in  school 
to  complete  another  half  year  of  work.  On  the  average  for  the 
five  schools  75.3%  of  all  pupils  who  were  enrolled  in  the  high 
sixth  grade  made  1  year  of  advancement  in  school  thereafter; 
59.6%,  2  years;  and  34.2%,  3  years. 

Tables  44,  45,  and  46  should  be  read  in  like  manner. 


164     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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Retention  of  Pupils  in  School 


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168     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Table  47  should  be  read :  in  school  3  there  is  a  gain  in  reten- 
tion thru  one-half  year  of  6.8%  for  boys,  16.4%  for  girls  and  10.2% 
for  all  pupils  during  the  five  year  interval  between  the  1907-8 
and  1912-13  groups.  On  the  average  for  the  five  schools  there 
is  a  gain  for  all  pupils  of  9.6%  thru  1  year,  11.2%  thru  2  years, 
and  2.0%  thru  3  years,  etc. 

Table  48  is  to  be  read  in  like  manner. 

A  comparison  of  averages  of  tables  43  and  45  shows  that  for 
all  pupils  the  departmental  schools  have  a  1%  higher  progress 
retention  than  junior  schools  thru  1  year  (76.9%  to  75.3%),  a 
5%  higher  retention  thru  2  years  (64.8%  to  59.8%),  and  an  8% 
higher  retention  thru  3  years  (42.4%  to  34.2%).  The  depart- 
mental schools  have  a  superior  retention  thru  all  three  years  be- 
yond the  high  sixth  grade. 

When  these  tables  are  compared  with  respect  to  the  per  cent 
of  boys  retained  we  find  the  departmental  schools  1%  higher  thru 
1  year,  equal  thru  2  years,  and  7%  higher  thru  3  years. 

A  comparison  of  averages  of  tables  47  and  48  for  all  pupils 
shows  a  4%  greater  gain  in  retention  for  junior  than  for  depart- 
mental schools  thru  1  year  (9.6%  to  5.3%),  a  1%  greater  gain 
thru  2  years  (11.2%  to  10.6%),  and  a  5%  smaller  gain  thru  3 
years  (2%  to  6.8%). 

When  comparisons  are  made  for  boys  only  from  tables  47 
and  48  (averages)  the  junior  schools  have  an  8%  greater  gain  than 
departmental  schools  thru  1  year  (10.9%  to  3.3%),  a  9%  greater 
gain  thru  2  years  (15.2%  to  6.1%),  and  a  4%  greater  gain  thru 
3  years  (4.4%  to  .7%). 

As  measured  in  terms  of  retention  of  all  pupils  of  the  1912-13 
group  the  departmental  schools  are  superior,  but  measured  in 
terms  of  gain  in  retention  of  boys  during  the  5  year  interval 
the  junior  high  schools  have  a  distinct  advantage,  as  they  also 
have  in  terms  of  gain  in  retention  of  all  pupils  thru  1  and  2  years. 

The  fact  that  2  junior  and  1  departmental  school  computed 
the  1912-13  group  data  to  June  1917  instead  of  to  January  1917 
as  directed  may  have  a  slight  effect  upon  the  results  for  the  sixth 
half  year  as  a  few  retarded  pupils  may  have  passed  the  sixth  half 
year  of  work  during  the  extra  half  year  included  by  these  schools. 
The  fact  that  these  errors  were  in  both  types  of  schools  tends  to 
neutralize  the  error  as  relates  to  group  comparisons.  From  the 
number  of  retarded  pupils  who  might  affect  the  results  as  indi- 
cated, I  estimate  that  the  per  cent  of  error  for  any  school  for  the 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  169 

sixth  half  year  is  not  greater  than  5  per  cent  and  that  any  error 
in  the  group  averages  for  the  sixth  half  year  is  less  than  2  per 
cent. 

Tables  49,  50,  51  and  52  show  the  per  cent  of  possible  progress, 
the  per  cent  acceleration,  and  the  per  cent  retardation  for  junior 
and  departmental  schools  for  the  high  sixth  grade  groups  of  1907- 
8  and  1912-13. 


170     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


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172     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

Table  49  should  be  read:  in  school  3  the  1912-13  group  of 
boys  had  136  half  years  of  attendance  in  grades  seven  and  eight 
which  resulted  in  95  half  years  of  progress;  their  per  cent  of 
possible  progress  was  69.8%;  2.4%  of  these  boys  were  accelerated 
one-half  year  or  more  during  their  progress  thru  grades  7  and  8 ; 
and  38.1%  of  them  were  retarded  one-half  year  or  more  in  the 
same  grades,  etc. 

Tables  50,  51,  52  are  to  be  read  in  like  manner. 

One-hundred  per  cent  possible  progress  would  be  scored  if 
every  half  year  of  attendance  resulted  in  a  half  year  of  progress. 

The  two  groups  of  schools,  see  tables  49  to  52  inclusive,  show 
marked  similarities  in  results.  In  both  the  girls  have  a  slightly 
higher  progress  score  than  the  boys,  4%  more  for  the  junior 
schools  for  the  1912 :1 3  group  and  5%  for  the  departmental  schools 
for  the  same  date.  The  average  for  all  pupils  is  3%  higher  in 
1912-13  than  in  1907-8  for  the  junior  schools  and  2%  higher  for 
the  departmental  schools.  On  the  average  about  50%  more 
boys  than  girls  are  retarded  for  both  the  1907-8  and  1912-13 
groups,  and  the  retardation  rate  for  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
pupils  is  lowered  during  the  5  year  interval  by  3%  in  junior 
schools  and  1%  in  departmental  schools.  Only  1  junior  school, 
No.  25,  shows  a  marked  retardation  improvement  (14.7%), 
although  No.  2  of  the  departmental  schools  shows  neither  re- 
tardation nor  acceleration  at  either  date.  Department  school 
No.  11,  improved  its  retardation  rate  by  31.9%  but  schools  16j 
and  17  made  poorer  records  at  the  later  date  by  19.8%  and  8.2% 
respectively.  But  one  school  in  each  group  at  the  later  date 
appears  to  be  securing  even  a  small  degree  of  acceleration  for 
both  boys  and  girls,  although  school  No.  3  of  the  junior  group 
shows  a  small  per  cent  of  acceleration  for  boys  in  1912-13,  and 
No.  10  of  the  junior  schools,  a  small  acceleration  for  girls  for 
the  same  date.  Neither  group  had  a  school  showing  any  accelera- 
tion for  the  1907-8  pupils. 

The  data  of  these  tables  warrant  no  claims  of  superiority  for 
either  type  of  organization,  junior  or  departmental. 

SUMMARY  OF  RETENTION  FACTS. 

As  measured  by  enrollments  the  junior  type  schools  have  a 
higher  per  cent  of  retention  than  the  non-junior  schools  in  grades 
7  to  9  and  10  to  12  in  cities  of  less  than  20,000  population,  but 
have  a  slightly  lower  per  cent  of  retention  in  cities  of  20,000  and 
more  population. 


Retention  of  Pupils  in  School  173 

As  measured  by  the  per  cent  of  high  sixth  grade  pupils  of 
the  1912-13  group  retained  thru  half  years  of  attendance  the 
departmental  schools  are  superior. 

As  measured  by  the^  relative  per  cent  of  boys  of  the  1912-13 
group  retained  thru  1,  2  and  3  years  the  departmental  schools 
are  very  slightly  superior  thru  1  and  2  years  and  equal  thru  3 
years. 

As  measured  by  the  gain  in  retention  for  all  pupils  during 
the  5  year  interval  the  junior  schools  have  the  higher  record  thru 
1  year  and  the  departmental  schools  thru  2  and  3  years. 

As  measured  in  terms  of  the  gain  in  per  cent  of  boys  retained 
during  the  5  year  interval  the  junior  schools  have  a  distinct  lead 
thru  each  of  the  three  years. 

As  measured  by  the  progress  retention  of  the  1912-13  group 
the  departmental  schools  are  superior. 

As  measured  by  the  progress  retention  of  boys  of  the  1912-13 
group  the  departmental  schools  are  slightly  superior. 

As  measured  by  the  gain  in  progress  retention  of  all  pupils 
during  the  5  year  interval  the  junior  schools  are  superior  thru 
1  and  2  years  and  the  departmental  schools  thru  3  years. 

As  measured  in  terms  of  gain  in  progress  retention  by  boys 
during  the  5  year  interval  the  junior  schools  are  superior  thru 
all  three  years. 

These  data  give  no  support  to  the  claim  often  advanced  that 
junior  high  school  organization  promotes  a  superior  retention  of 
pupils  as  compared  with  other  types  of  grammar  grade  organiza- 
tion. These  data  do,  however,  indicate  a  justification  for  the 
claim,  frequently  made,  that  junior  high  school  organization 
makes  an  appeal  to  boys  and  retains  them  in  greater  numbers  and 
for  a  longer  time  than  do  other  types  of  grammar  grade  organiza- 
tion. 

These  data  relative  to  attendance  and  progress  retention, 
because  of  the  small  number  of  schools  included  in  each  group, 
are  merely  suggestive  of  tendencies  rather  than  of  definite  con- 
clusions. 

Studies  for  comparison  of  retention,  measured  in  terms  of 
retention  beyond  the  sixth  grade,  are  not  available.  Van  Den- 
burg6  and  Dynes7  have  data  of  a  partially  similar  nature  apply- 
ing to  grades  9  to  12  inclusive,  but  as  their  per  cents  are  computed 

•  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.  Elimination  of  Students  in  Public  Secondary  Schools  of  New  York 
City.  pp.  84-90. 

7  Dynes,  J.  J.  Relation  of  Retention  and  Elimination  of  Students  from  the  High  School. 
School  Rev.  22:396. 


174     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

on  the  number  of  pupils  who  enroll  in  grade  9  only,  it  is  impossible 
to  reduce  their  data  to  comparable  terms.  Then,  too,  we  are 
investigating  more  particularly  the  conditions  in  grades  7  to  9 
inclusive  while  the  major  part  of  their  data  relates  to  grades 
10  to  12. 


General  Summary  175 

GENERAL  SUMMARY. 

Thirty-five  Indiana  public  schools  claimed  junior  high  school  organization 
in  1916,  twenty-five  of  which  were  established  in  1915  or  later.  Twelve 
of  these  schools  are  located  in  towns  of  1,000  population  or  less  and  nine 
are  in  cities  of  20,000  or  more  population. 

Twenty-five  superintendents  and  principals  ranked  the  following  four 
factors  as  chief  in  importance  in  junior  high  school  organization,  in 
order  as  given :  (a)  enriched  subjects  and  courses  of  study ;  (b)  provision 
for  individual  differences,  including  differentiated  curricula,  half  yearly 
promotions,  promotion  by  subject,  class  grouping  on  the  basis  of  ability, 
and  provision  for  flexible  individual  advancement;  (c)  revised  or  modi- 
fied methods,  of  which  the  degree  of  departmentalization,  employment 
of  teachers  with  high  school  experience,  supervised  study,  the  use  of 
the  project  plan  in  prevocational  subjects,  and  the  use  of  a  common 
teaching  staff  for  junior  and  senior  schools  are  taken  as  indices;  (d)  ex- 
ploration, guidance  and  social  organization. 

Junior  high  school  standards  in  Indiana  schools. 

a.  Programs  of  study.    The  typical  Indiana  junior  high  school  offers 

the  following  average  program  in: 

(1)  Grade  7  (28  schools):    English  (6.2  periods  a  week) 

arithmetic  (4.5),  history  (4.2),  geography  (2.7) 
physiology-hygiene  (2),  agriculture  or  manual  train- 
ing (2.1),  domestic  science  (2.3),  drawing  and  music 
each  (1.5),  German,  12  schools,  (4),  and  an  elective 
of  foreign  language  (5)  or  practical  arts  (2  to  4)  in 
approximately  one-sixth  the  schools. 

(2)  Grade  8  (35  schools):    English  (5.6  periods  a  week), 

arithmetic  (4.6),  history  and  civics  (4.6),  general 
science  (4)  or  geography-physiology-hygiene  (3), 
domestic  science  or  manual  training  or  agriculture 
(2.6),  drawing  and  music  each  (1.3),  and  an  elective 
required  in  some,  of  foreign  language  (4  or  5)  or  other 
high  school  subject  other  than  general  science  (4  or  5). 

(3)  Grade  9  (27  schools):    Required-English  (5  periods  a 

week),  algebra  (5),  foreign  language,  German  or 
Latin  (5).  Elective-science — general  science,  botany, 
physical  geography — (5),  manual  or  domestic  arts  (5 
double  periods),  drawing  and  music,  in  most  schools, 
(1  or  2),  physical  training,  in  less  than  one-third  the 
schools  (2),  commercial  work  including  commercial 
arithmetic  or  bookkeeping  or  both,  in  about  one-third 
the  schools  (5),  industrial  vocational  courses,  in  about 
one-fifth  the  schools  (5),  ancient  history,  in  about 
one-sixth  the  schools  (5). 

b.  Relative  to  provision  for  individual  differences,  of  35  schools, 

4  offer  differentiated  curricula  to  provide  for  well  defined 
group  interests,  22  promote  half  yearly,  32  promote  by  subject, 
14  have  accelerant  and  slow  moving  classes,  and  34  make  some 
provision  for  flexible  individual  advancement. 


176     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

c.  Relative  to  indices  of  method  modifications,  there  is  a  close 

approximation  to  high  school  standards  in  the  degree  of  depart- 
mentalization, introduction  of  new  methods,  and  general 
methods  of  instruction.  On  the  average  every  pupil  of  grade 
7  has  6  different  teachers,  grade  8,  5  teachers  and  grade  9, 
4  teachers.  Hence  the  degree  of  departmentalization  is  equiva- 
lent to  that  in  the  high  school.  In  17  schools  the  same  teachers 
have  charge  of  all  classes  in  both  senior  and  junior  high  schools, 
and  in  but  3  schools  are  there  no  senior  and  junior  high  schools 
teachers  in  common.  Seventy-five  and  five-tenths  per  cent  of 
junior  high  school  teachers  have  had  high  school  teaching 
experience.  Thirty-one  schools  have  supervised  study,  and  23, 
of  31  reporting,  use  the  project  method  in  whole  or  part  in 
the  prevocational  subjects. 

d.  With  respect  to  exploration,  guidance,  and  social  organization, 

22  of  26  schools  reporting  indicate  some  form  of  teacher  adviser 
plan,  8  have  systematic  provision  for  educational  or  vocational 
guidance,  26  of  28  reporting,  have  one  or  more  extra-class 
organizations,  more  commonly  athletics  and  music,  and  21, 
of  22  reporting,  have  an  average  of  one  assembly  a  week. 

e.  Miscellaneous  features. 

(1)  Grades  included.    Twenty-two  include  grades  7,  8  and 

9;  9,  grades  7  and  8;  2  grades  8  and  9;  1,  grade  8; 
1,  grades  6,  7  and  8. 

(2)  Housing.   Twenty-five  schools  have  the  grammar  grades 

in  the  high  school  building;  5,  separate  but  near  the 
high  school ;  and  5  with  elementary  grades,  generally 
a  separate  floor  of  the  building. 

(3)  Time  distribution.     The  median  length  of  the  school 

term  is  36  weeks  and  the  average,  34.7  weeks.  The 
median  class  period  is  40  minutes  and  the  average 
44.4. 

(4)  Teacher  data.    For  the  average  school  the  number  of 

years  of  teacher  training  beyond  the  high  school  is 
2.71;  the  average  number  of  years  of  teaching  ex- 
perience, 8.6;  the  average  per  cent  of  college  graduates 
43.1;  per  cent  of  men  teachers,  36  (median  40);  and 
the  average  annual  salary,  $735. 

(5)  Provision  for  over-age  children.     Four  schools  report 

definite  provision;  13,  very  limited;  and  16,  no  pro- 
vision. 

4.     Departmental  school  standards. 

a.     Subjects  of  study  with  time  allotment. 

(1)  Grade  8.  English  (12  periods  a  week),  arithmetic  (5), 
history  and  civics  (4.9),  geography  or  physiology- 
hygiene  (3.2),  domestic  science  or  manual  training  or 
agriculture  (2.2),  music  (1.7),  drawing  (1.2),  and 
electives  with  grade  9  in  12  schools  to  a  limited  extent. 


General  Summary  177 

(2)  Grade  7.     Approximately  the  same  as  in  junior  high 

schools  with  the  exception  of  more  time  to  formal 
English  and  practically  no  offerings  in  foreign  lan- 
guage. 

(3)  Grade  9.     Approximately  the  same  as  in  the  junior 

high  schools. 

b.  Relative  to  provision  for  individual  differences,  no  schools  report 

differentiated  curricula  other  than  the  minimum  required  by 
State  Board  rules  in  prevocational  work  in  grades  7  and  8. 
Twenty-three  report  half  yearly  promotions;  11,  promotion  by 
subject ;  8  accelerant  and  slow  moving  classes;  and  18,  limited 
provision  for  individual  advancement. 

c.  Indices  of  method  modification.    Fourteen  indicate  provision  for 

supervised  study  as  a  regular  feature,  and  6  in  a  limited  degree; 
the  degree  of  departmentalization  is  approximately  the  same 
as  in  the  junior  type  schools;  the  project  method  is  used  in  pre- 
vocational work  in  whole  or  in  part  in  25  schools;  in  9  schools 
high  schools  teachers  have  charge  of  a  part  of  the  academic  and 
all  special  subjects  in  the  departmental  school,  in  8  no  high 
school  teachers  teach  any  departmental  classes,  and  in  17  they 
teach  all  or  part  of  the  special  subjects  in  the  grammar  grades ; 
and  37  per  cent  of  departmental  teachers  have  had  high  shcool 
teaching  experience. 

d.  With  respect  to  exploration,  guidance,  and  social  organization, 

24  schools  report  some  provision  for  a  teacher  adviser  plan; 
5  have  systematic  provision  for  educational  or  vocational 
guidance;  and  26,  of  29  reporting-,  have  1  or  more  extra-class 
organizations,  athletics  and  musical  predominating. 

e.  Miscellaneous  features. 

(1)  Housing.    In  13  schools  grammar  grades  are  in  the  high 

school  building  but  do  not  use  the  same  assembly  or 
class  rooms,  and  of  the  remaining  22,  all  but  4  are 
with  elementary  school  pupils. 

(2)  Time  distribution.     The  median  length  term  is  36  weeks 

and  the  average,  35.5  weeks.  The  median  length  reci- 
tation period  is  30  minutes  and  the  average,  35.5 
minutes. 

(3)  Teacher  data.    The  average  teacher  training  beyond 

the  high  school  is  2.06  years;  teaching  experience, 
10.4  years;  per  cent  of  college  graduates,  12;  per 
cent  of  men  teachers,  25.5;  and  the  average  annual 
salary,  $650. 

(4)  Provision  for  over-age  children  in  grammar  grades.    No 

schools  report  any  definite  provision;  12  report  no 
provision;  and  18  report  a  very  limited  provision,  as 
occasionally,  etc. 

5.     Comparison  of  departmental  and  junior  schools. 

By  a  point  system  of  scoring  new  and  frequently  advocated  features 
of  reorganization  but  5  of  the  35  junior  high  schools  fall  below  the 


178    Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

arbitrarily  determined  junior  high  school  standard,  while  but  6 
departmental  schools  of  the  35  score  above  this  limit.  By  the  scor- 
ing scheme  a  total  of  26  to  29  points  are  given,  distributed  as  follows: 
subject  of  study  modifications,  10  points;  provision  for  different 
interests  and  abilities,  4  to  7  points;  social  and  advisory  organiza- 
tion, 3  points;  and  miscellaneous  features,  6  points.  The  adoption 
of  the  junior  high  school  name  seems  to  carry  with  it,  in  considerable 
degree,  the  adoption  of  the  new  standards.  The  median  junior 
high  school  score  is  66.7  and  the  median  departmental  school 
score  40.7 

6.     Measurement  of  some  claimed  advantages  of  and  objections  to  the  junior 
high  school. 

a.  Costs.    As  measured  by  the  median,  seventh  and  eighth  grade 

costs  for  instruction  and  supervision  are  about  6  per  cent  higher 
in  the  junior  type  schools  than  in  departmental  schools  in  cities 
of  5  000  and  more  population.  In  consolidated  rural  high 
schools  of  the  junior  type,  organized  on  the  six-six  plan,  the 
per  capita  cost  for  grades  7  to  12  inclusive  is  6  per  cent  more  than 
for  non-junior  schools  under  the  same  general  conditions.  In 
towns  and  villages  of  less  than  5  000  population  the  per  capita 
costs  in  grades  7  to  12  inclusive  are  from  15  to  20  per  cent 
higher  in  the  junior  than  in  the  departmental  type  schools. 

b.  Measurement  of  some  school  achievements  in  junior  and  non- 

junior  schools  in  grade  eight. 

Ten  six-six  plan  schools  compared  with  11  eight-four  plan  schools 
score  18  per  cent  lower  (64%  to  78%)  on  the  Ayers'  Spelling  Scale, 
column  T.  The  six-six  plan  schools  give  no  definite  time  to  spelling 
in  grades  7  and  8  while  the  eight-four  plan  schools  average  15  min- 
utes daily.  As  measured  by  the  Understanding  of  Sentences  and 
the  Visual  Vocabulary  Scales  (Thorndike)  the  six-six  type  schools 
score  about  3  per  cent  below  the  eight-four  plan  schools,  and  devote 
only  from  40  to  50  per  cent  as  much  time  to  formal  reading.  The 
six-six  type  schools  score  2  per  cent  higher  on  the  Woody  Multiplica- 
tion Scale  and  devote  a  slightly  less  amount  of  time  to  the  subject 
of  arithmetic  than  do  the  eight-four  type  schools.  The  six-six  plan 
schools  give  one-half  the  traditional  English  time  to  German  (4-40 
minute  periods  a  week  in  grades  7  and  8).  With  the  possible  excep- 
tion of  spelling,  the  above  stated  facts  do  not  appear  to  indicate 
that  an  excessive  amount  of  time  devoted  to  formal  English,  as  in 
the  eight-four  plan  schools,  yields  results  proportional  to  the  time 
spent.  The  six-six  type  schools,  which  have  given  one-half  the 
usual  English  time  of  the  grammar  grades  to  a  foreign  language  and 
still  additional  time  to  general  science  in  grade  8,  appear  to  be 
realizing  approximately  the  same  values  in  the  fundamental  gram- 
mar grade  subjects  as  the  non- junior  schools  and  in  addition,  without 
doubt,  are  receiving  very  positive  values  from  the  study  of  foreign 
language  and  general  science  which  these  non- junior  schools  do  not 
have  in  these  grades. 


General  Summary  179 

c.     Retention  of  pupils  in  school. 

As  measured  by  the  per  cent  of  enrollments  in  junior  and  senior  high 
school  grades  as  compared  with  the  numbers  in  grades  1  to  6  neither 
the  junior  nor  the  departmental  type  school  seems  to  have  any  ad- 
vantage. The  junior  school  has  an  apparent  lead  in  schools  in  towns 
and  cities  of  less  than  20,000  population  and  the  departmental 
schools  in  cities  of  20,000  and  more  population.  As  measured  by 
the  per  cent  of  the  high  sixth  grade  pupils  retained  thru  a  series  of 
years  attendance  or  thru  years  of  progress  the  departmental  schools 
have  the  higher  score  on  the  basis  of  all  pupils  retained,  but  the 
junior  schools  are  markedly  superior  on  the  basis  of  the  gain  in  the 
per  cent  of  boys  retained  during  the  5  year  interval  between  the 
1907-8  and  the  1912-13  groups.  In  general,  it  is  not  apparent  that 
these  junior  school  data  justify  the  claim,  commonly  made,  that 
junior  high  schools  retain  a  higher  per  cent  of  pupils  than  do  schools 
of  the  non- junior  type  in  the  grammar  and  high  school  grades. 
The  data  do  seem  to  justify  the  stated  aims  of  some  advocates  of 
reorganization,  namely,  that  the  junior  type  school  makes  a  superior 
appeal  to  boys  as  compared  with  the  traditional  organization 


180     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 


APPENDIX. 

A  SURVEY  OF  THE  SEVENTH,  EIGHTH  AND  NINTH  GRADE  ORGANIZATION 
IN  INDIANA  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  A  QUESTIONNAIRE. 


Name  of  city Information  furnished  by . 

Number  of  weeks  in  the  school  year Date  of  report 


A.    Type  of  organization. 

1.  Junior  high  school. 

a.  Have  you  a  special  organization  of  grades  7  and  8  or  8 

and  9  or  7,  8  and  9  to  provide  for  greater  differentia- 
tion of  studies,  easier  transition  to  the  high  school, 
longer  retention  in  school,  earlier  introduction  of 
vocational  work,  etc.,  commonly  called  a  junior  high 
school?  If  so,  how  many  such  schools? 

b.  If  you  have  a  junior  high  school,  what  is  the  attitude  of 

teachers,  pupils,  and  patrons  toward  the  organiza- 
tion? 

c.  What  is  the  date  of  the  first  definite  organization  of 

your  junior  high  school? 
d     What  grades  constitute  this  school? 

e.  What  are  the  reasons  for  the  particular  combination  of 

grades  in  this  school — the  psychological  and  social 
needs  of  the  children,  the  demands  of  subject  matter 
and  methods,  or  economic  and  building  conditions? 

f.  If  you  have  not  a  junior  high  school  according  to  the 

above  definition  do  you  contemplate  the  organization 
of  one  soon?  Approximate  date? 

2.  Departmental  school  (to  be  answered  also  by  junior  high  schools.) 

a.  Do  you  have  departmental  teaching  (special  teachers 

for  each  subject)  in  the  grammar  grades?  In  what 
subjects?  In  what  grades? 

b.  Is  promotion  by  subject  or  by  grade? 

c.  In  what  other  grades  below  the  high  school  do  you  have 

departmental  teaching  and  promotion  by  subjects? 

d.  Date  of  the  introduction  of  departmental  teaching? 

Is  promotion  in  these  grammar  grades  yearly  or  half 

yearly? 

How  many  different  teachers  does  a  normal  pupil  have 

in  any  one  term  in  grade  6..  ..,7..  ..,8..  ..,9....? 

g      Are  any  of  these  teachers  the  same  as  of  the  subjects  in 

grades  9  to  12?    How  many?    What  subjects? 
h      If  you  have  departmental  teaching  in  grammar  grades 
is  each  pupil  assigned  to  some  teacher  or  principal  as 
a  special  adviser? 


Appendix  181 

i.  Is  any  systematic  attempt  made  to  give  educational  or 
vocational  guidance  in  these  grades?  If  so,  indicate 
how,  briefly. 

j.     Do  you  have  supervised  study  other  than  in  the  general 
assembly  room  for  these  grammar  grades?     If  so, 
how  many  minutes  per  day  per  pupil? 
B.     Conditions  of  housing,  admission,  grouping,  attendance,  enrollment,  etc. 

1 .  Housing  and  supervision. 

a.  Are  grades  7  and  8,  8  and  9,  or  7,  8  and  9  housed  with 

the  senior  high  school,  with  lower  grades,  in  a  sep- 
arate building,  or  are  all  grades  from  1  to  12  in  the 
same  building? 

b.  Are  these  grades  in  charge  of  the  principal  of  the  senior 

high  school,  the  principal  of  an  elementary  school, 
or  have  they  a  separate  principal  of  their  own? 

c.  What  per  cent  of  the  time  of  the  principals  of  these  grades 

is  devoted  to  supervision?  (Supervision  is  here  de- 
fined to  mean  classroom  visitation  and  conferences 
with  teachers  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  quality 
of  the  work). 

2.  Admission. 

a  Is  promotion  in  all  subjects  from  the  grade  below  the 
grades  referred  to  necessary  for  admission  to  the 
seventh  or  beginning  grade  of  your  departmental  or 
junior  school? 

b.  Do  you  enroll  here  over-age  pupils  who  have  not  com- 

pleted the  regular  work  of  the  earlier  grades  be- 
cause of  the  greater  benefit  you  think  they  will  receive 
from  this  arrangement? 

c.  If  this  latter  is  true,  how  many  such  pupils  were  ad- 

vanced to  this  department  at  the  end  of  the  last 
term? 

3.  Grouping  into  classes. 

a.  In  what  classes  (subjects)  do  you  have  pupils  segregated 

as  to  sex?  In  what  grades?  What  results  or  ad- 
vantages are  claimed  for  such  segregation? 

b.  Do  you  form  classes  in  these  grades  on  the  basis  of  mental 

ability  (fast  and  slow  moving  classes)?  About  what 
per  cent  of  pupils  in  the  grammar  grades  are  in  such 
classes?  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  plan? 

c.  To  what  extent  do  you  group  pupils  into  classes  on  the 

basis  of  vocational  interests? 

d.  Indicate  any  other  plan  of  classification  you  use  in 

forming  classes  in  these  grades. 

4.  Enrollment,  attendance,  failure. 

a.     Indicate  the  enrollment  for  the  first  semester  of  the  year 
1915-16  in  the  following  grades:    1  to  6  inclusive.  7. 
89,  10,  11  and  12. 


182     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

b.  Indicate  the  same  for  the  first  semester  of  the  year  1910- 

1 1  if  the  data  are  available. 

c.  Indicate  the  number  of  high  school  graduates,  June 

1915.    Also  for  June  1910. 

d.  What  is  the  estimated  population  of  your  city,  1915? 

e.  Indicate  the  average  daily  attendance  for  the   first 

semester  1915-16  in  grades  7,  8,  and  9  separately. 

f.  Indicate  the  per  cent  of  failure  for  the  first  semester 

1915-16  in  grades  7,  8,  and  9  separately.  (If  promotion 
is  by  grade  divide  the  number  of  pupils  failing  by  the 
number  of  pupils  enrolled;  if  by  subjects,  divide  the 
number  of  subject  failures  by  the  number  of  subject 
enrollments). 
C.  Teachers  in  grammar  grades. 

1.  Number. 

a.  How  many  teachers  are  employed  in  your  unior  high 
school,  departmental  school  or  grammar  grades, 
women?  men?  (Count  fractional  teacher  where 
time  is  divided  between  the  grades  in  question  and 
other  grades,) 

2.  Training. 

a.  What  is  your  minimum  requirement  for  teachers  in 

these  grades  as  to  the  number  of  years  of  normal  school 
or  collegiate  training? 

b.  Is  this  average  above  that  for  teachers  in  grades  1  to  6? 

c.  In  these  grammar  grades  how  many  college  graduates? 

How  many  with  2  years  of  college  training?  How 
many  are  graduates  from  a  3  year  normal  school? 

3.  Teaching  experience. 

a.  How  many  years  of  teaching  experience  do  you  require 

before  placing  a  teacher  in  charge  of  these  grammar 
grade  classes? 

b.  What  is  the  average  number  of  years  of  teaching  ex- 

perience for  all  teachers  in  these  grades? 

c.  How  much  is  this  above  the  average  for  grades  1  to  6? 

d.  How  many  teachers  in  these  grades  have  taught  10 

years  or  more,  5  to  9  years,  2  to  5  years? 

e.  How  many  have  taught  in  high  school?    In  lower  grades? 

4.  Salary  and  costs. 

a.  What  is  your  maximum  annual  salary  in  these  grades, 

exclusive  of  the  principal?    Minimum?    Average? 

b.  How  does  this  average  compare  with  that  in  grades  1 

to  6?    With  that  of  the  high  school? 

c.  What  is  your  total  salary  account  for  teaching  and 

supervision  in  these  grammar  or  junior  high  school 
grades?  (Divide  salaries  for  part  time  work  in  this 
department  on  the  same  basis  as  their  time  was 
divided  in  C.  1.  Include  principals'  salaries  in  these 


Appendix  183 

totals.)  In  grades  1  to  6?  In  the  high  school?  (In- 
clude grades  9  to  12  or  10  to  12  inclusive  according 
to  your  organization,  which  represents  the  grades 
above  your  junior  high  school.) 

d.  Indicate  the  salary,  or  the  average  salary  where  there  are 
more  than  one  in  a  given  group,  of  each  of  the  following : 
high  school  principal,  general  elementary  school 
principal,  junior  high  school  or  departmental  prin- 
cipal. 
5.  Time  daily  in  grades  7  and  8  or  junior  high  school. 

a.  What  is  the  average  number  of  periods  each  teacher 

conducts  recitations  daily?  Is  in  charge  of  assembly 
hall  or  is  supervising  study? 

b.  What  is  the  length  in  minutes  of  recitation  periods? 
D.    Dourses  of  study  offered  and  taken. 

1.  After  each  of  the  following  subjects  which  you  offer  in  the  grades 
of  your  junior  high  or  departmental  school  check  the 
following  data  under  each  of  the  grades  which  you 
are  including  in  the  organization. 

a.  In  column  "a"  indicate  whether  the  subject  is  required 

or  elective  by  "R"  or  "E".  If  the  subject  is  required 
in  one  course  and  elective  in  another  indicate  by 
"R-E". 

b.  In  column  "b"  indicate  the  total  number  of  pupils 

taking  the  subject  for  each  grade. 

c.  In  column  "c"  indicate  the  total  number  of  minutes 

devoted  to  class  recitation  by  any  pupil  per  week  for 
each  subject. 

d.  In  the  column  marked  "date"  indicate  by  a  "B"  or  an 

"S"  whether  the  subject  was  introduced  into  this 
department  of  your  school  before  or  since  1912. 

e.  Those  schools  that  include  grade  6  in  this  department 

and  not  the  9th  will  cross  out  the  9  at  the  head  of  the 
column  headed  "grade  6  or  9",  and  those  having  the 
9th  and  not  the  6th  included  will  cross  out  the  6. 


184     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 
2.     Program  of  studies  by  grades. 


GRADE  7 

GRADE  8 

GRADE  6,  9 

SUBJECT 

a 

b 

c 

a 

b 

c 

a 

b 

c 

Date 

Agriculture 

Algebra 

Ancient  History  

Arithmetic                 .  . 

Bookkeeping          .... 

Botany               

Civics             

Com.  Arithmetic  

Com.  Geography.  .  .  . 

Cooking  .            

Drawing  and  Art  

Electrical  Work  

Elementary  Science.  .  . 

English               

grammar  and  comp 

reading  and  literat'e 
spelling  and  writing 
Geography 

German    

History  (U  S  ) 

Industrial  History 

Iron  and  Metal  Work  . 
Latin  

Mechanical  Drawing 

IVIusic 

Physical  Geography  .  . 
Physical  Training 

Physiology  &  Hygiene 
Plumbing 

Printing 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

^Vood  -  work 

Other  Subjects 

Note:    Please  enclose  courses  of  study  for  grammar  grades  and  high  school, 
together  with  the  statement  of  requirements  for  graduation. 


Appendix  185 

E.     Advantages  of  and  objections  to  junior  high  school  organization. 

1.  Check  whichever  of  the  following  you  think  represent  distinct 
advantages  of  your  junior  high  school  organization  as  compared 
with  other  forms  of  7th  and  8th  grade  organization: 

a.  It  provides  greater  differentiation  of  studies 

b.  It  provides  an  easier  transition  to  high  school  as  reagrds 

subject  matter methods  of  teaching 

school   discipline and   social   life 


c.  It  provides  for  the  individual  needs  and  affords  a  better 

opportunity  to  the  dull  pupil to  the  bright 

pupil 

d.  It  provides  a  better  grounding  in  high  school  subjects 

such  as  languages  and  mathematics 

e.  It  provides  an  earlier  opportunity  for  vocational  and 

prevocational  subjects 

f .  If  favors  a  longer  retention  of  pupils  in  school 

g.  It  makes  possible  the  elimination  of  one  year  from  the 

upper  six  years  of  our  twelve  year  course 

h.     Indicate  any  other  advantages 

2.  Check  whichever  of  the  following  you  think  represent  objections 
to  the  junior  high  school  as  compared  with  other  forms  of  7th 
and  8th  grade  organization: 

a.  Higher  cost 

b.  Personal or  community 

preference  for  the  present  organization. 

c.  Difficulty  in  securing  suitable  teachers 

d.  Distance  many  7th  and  8th  grade  pupils  would  have  to 

go  to  reach  school  and  cost  of  transportation 

e.  Need  of  more  time  on  the  three  R's  in  these  grades  rather 

than  on  high  school  subjects  for  the  average  pupil 


f.  Scarcity  of  suitable  text-books 

g.  Present  building  and  equipment  not  suitable 

h.    School  system  too  small  to  provide  the  differentiation  of 

subjects  called  for  by  new  plan 

i.      Name  other  objections 

F.     Economy  of  time  and  extension  of  work  to  college  grade. 

1.  Shortening  the  high  school  course. 

Do  you  think  it  desirable  to  organize  the  work  of  the 
junior  high  school  or  the  grammar  grades  so  as  to 
eliminate  one  of  the  last  six  years  of  work  of  the  twelve 
years'  course? ,  why  or  why  not? 

2.  Extending  the  twelfth  year's  work  to  college  grade. 

a.  Do  you  think  it  desirable  to  make  the  twelfth  year  of 
common  school  work  the  equivalent  of  college  fresh- 
man work? . . 


186     Reorganization  Movement  in  the  Grammar  Grades  of  Indiana  Schools 

b.  Are  you,  in  your  high  school,  offering  a  year  of  college 

work? 

c.  What  subjects? 

d.  How  many  hours  of  work  a  week  for  the  pupil  represent 

normal  work  in  this  junior  college  department? 

e.  How  many  pupils  are  enrolled  for  this  advanced  work? 


f.  What  qualifications  do  you  require  for  the  teachers  of 
junior  college  subjects  in  the  way  of  academic  prepara- 
tion and  experience  above  those  of  regular  high  school 

teachers? 

Is  a  Master  of  Arts  degree  desirable? 

required 

G.    Mention  new  or  special  features  of  your  junior  (grammar  grade)  or  senior 
high  school  organization  which  are  proving  of  decided  value 


II.    A  SUPPLEMENTARY  QUESTIONNAIRE  ON  SEVENTH,  EIGHTH  AND  NINTH 
GRADE  ORGANIZATION  IN  INDIANA  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


1.  What  is  the  type  of  your  general  school  organization,  8-4,  6-2-4,  6-6,  6-3-3, 

7-5,  7-4, 6-5?   Indicate  if  other  plan  is  used. 

2.  Number  1,2,  3,  in  order  of  their  bearing,  the  controlling  factors  that  led 

to  your  junior  high  school  reorganization:    building  conditions,  educa- 
tional values,  economy  in  the  operation  of  your  school  system. 

3.  Number  in  the  order  of  their  relative  importance  (1, 2, 3,  etc.)  the  essential 

features  that  in  your  judgment  characterize  the  junior  high  school;  close 
contact  of  certain  grammar  grades  with  the  senior  high  school  with 
respect  to  housing  and  the  use  of  laboratories  and  equipment,  a  distinc- 
tive organization  separate  from  the  elementary  grades  and  the  senior 
high  school,  the  use  of  the  same  teachers  as  for  the  senior  high  school 
both  in  academic  and  special  subjects,  opportunity  for  some  pupils 
to  take  some  high  school  subjects  earlier  as  foreign  languages  and 
algebra,  opportunity  for  pupils  to  take  more  extensive  offerings  in  pre- 
vocational  subjects  than  the  minimum  state  requirement,  provision  for 
greater  differentiation  of  courses  than  under  old  conditions,  provision 
for  fast  and  slow  moving  groups  and  classes,  promotion  by  subject, 
departmental  teaching,  reorganized  and  enriched  subjects  of  study, 
reorganized  methods  of  instruction,  provision  for  supervised  study,  pro- 
vision for  educational  and  vocational  information  and  guidance,  better 
organization  of  pupil  social  activities,  opportunity  for  over-age  pupils 
regardless  of  their  previous  scholastic  attainments,  the  shortening  of 
the  period  of  elementary  and  high  school  training  by  at  least  one  year, 
opportunity  to  discover  interests  and  capacities,  to  provide  training 
along  the  special  lines  of  these  capacities  and  interests.  Add  other 
features  of  importance  not  listed,  and  mark  with  an  "X"  any  listed  that 
you  think  are  of  little  value. 


Appendix  187 

4.  a.     Do  you  keep  a  systematic  record  of  the  individual  traits  of  each  pupil 

and  of  his  educational  and  vocational  and  social  interests? 
b.     Is  the  individual  project  plan  used  in  prevocational  work  in  grades  7, 
8  and  9? 

5.  For  your  departmental  or  junior  high  school  grades  indicate  the  number 

of  teachers  who  have  had  less  than  1  year  of  training  beyond  the  high 
school,  1  but  less  than  2  years,  2  but  less  than  3  years,  3  but  less  than 
4  years,  4  years,  and  more  than  4  years. 

6.  Do  any  of  your  junior  high  school  or  departmental  school  teachers  have  to 

write  for  both  a  common  school  and  a  high  school  license  to  conform 
to  the  state  law  for  certification?  If  so,  does  this  cause  you  any  difficulty 
in  securing  teachers  for  these  grades?  Do  you  know  of  any  other  pro- 
visions of  the  Indiana  state  laws  or  of  the  regulations  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  that  do  or  may  hinder  the  free  working  out  of  the 
junior  high  school  idea?  If  so,  indicate  them. 

7.  What  extra-class  organizations  (definitely  organized)  do  you  have  which 

are  open  to  pupils  in  your  junior  or  departmental  school,  as  athletics, 
boy  scouts,  civic  clubs,  departmental  clubs,  general  literary  society, 
general  social  club,  school  publication,  student  government,  musical 
organizations,  etc.?  Indicate  for  7th,  8th,  and  9th  grades  separately. 

8.  Indicate  the  types  of  courses  in  your  junior  high  school,  as  academic, 

agriculture,  commercial,  home  making  (girls),  industrial  arts  (boys),  etc. 

9.  What  provision  do  you  make  for  unusually  bright  or  slow  pupils  in  junior 

hieh  school  grades,  as  the  carrying  of  an  extra  subject,  special  help,  etc.? 


VITA 

1.  Place  and  date  of  birth: 

Mankato,  Minnesota,  December  14,  1871. 

2.  Educational  institutions  attended : 

Rural  school,  Beauford,  Minnesota.     1877  to  1888. 
State  High  School,  Mapleton,  Minnesota.     1890  to  1893. 
University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota.     1893  to  1897. 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Stanford  University,  California.     1910- 

1911. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y.     1911-1912 

and  Feb.  to  June,  1917. 

3.  Degrees  received: 

B.S.  University  of  Minnesota.      1897. 
A.M.  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University.     1911. 

4.  Titles  of  previous  publications: 

a.  "A  Tentative  Revision  and  Extension  of  the  Binet-Simon  Measuring 

Scale  of  Intelligence",  (L.  M.  Terman  and  H.  G.  Childs)  in  the 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Feb.  to  May,  1912. 

b.  "Measurement  of  the  Drawing  Ability  of  Two  Thousand  One  Hundred 

and  Sevenety-seven  Children  in  Indiana  School  Systems  by  a 
Supplemented  Thorndike  Scale,"  in  the  Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  Sept.,  1915. 

c.  "A  Half- Year's  Progress  in  the  Achievement  of  One  School  System," 

in  The  Fifteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  part  I,  1916. 

d.  "Cost  of  Instruction  in   Indiana  Schools  and   Related   Problems," 

in  the  Bulletin  of  The  Third  Conference  on  Educational  Measure- 
ments, Indiana  University,  Feb.,  1917. 

e.  "The  Measurement  of  Achievement  in  Algebra,"  in  the  Bulletin  of 

The  Third  Conference  on  Educational  Measurements,  Indiana 
University,  Feb.,  1917. 

f.  "A  Study  of  Enrollment,  Acceleration,  Retardation  and  Normality," 

in  the  Bulletin  of  The  Third  Conference  on  Educational  Measure- 
ments, Indiana  University,  Feb.,  1917. 

g.  "The  Per  Cent  of  Failures  in  High  School,"  in  the  Bulletin  of  The 

Third  Conference  on  Educational  Measurements,  Indiana  Univer- 
sity, Feb.,  1917. 

h.  "The  Results  of  Practice  Teaching  as  Conducted  at  the  University  of 
Indiana  for  the  Years  1908-9  to  1913-4  inclusive,"  in  Educational 
Monographs,  number  VII,  of  the  Society  of  College  Teachers  of 
Education,  1916. 


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